FFC Categories

Overview

Academic laboratory buildings are living laboratories that advertise, enable, excite and inform everyone within range. They include both research and teaching labs. Academic research labs can be very similar to those of the private and government sectors while teaching labs are unique to the academic sector.

This Building Type page will further elaborate on the attributes and characteristics of Academic Laboratories.

Building Attributes

A. Types of Spaces

An academic laboratory incorporates a number of space types to meet the needs of the students, teachers, faculty, staff, and visitors. These may include:

• Laboratory: Dry
• Laboratory: Wet
• Conference / Classroom: For academic labs, the passive, front-facing lecture/ discussion room is becoming obsolete, yielding to the team-based interactive learning theatre where everyone can see the faces and hear the words of all in the room and those connected by the web. At Wallenberg Hall at Stanford University, there is no fixed furniture and the space can serve formal presentations, dynamic team based activities and support virtual concerts. Rooms like this are designed to allow small teams to work together in addition to dynamic full room discussions. Sophisticated audio speakers and microphones, image capture cameras and immediate digital connections to science communities around the world are the norm. In medium-to-large lecture rooms, triple projector screens are common with combination rear projection and or flat panel monitor systems often served by multiple computers with a single wireless control for the lights, blackout screens, and electronic media. These environments allow a view of the audience with the room fully illuminated; a view of the remote location; and a view of the information being shared in any combination, while capturing the entire event for future use.
• Auditorium
• Office
• Library
• Automated Data Processing: Mainframe
• Automated Data Processing: PC System
• General Storage
• Light Industrial
• Loading Dock
• Lobby

B. Teaching Laboratories

The Science Center provides a state-of-the-art setting for innovative teaching and research in the sciences and mathematics at Spelman College, Atlanta, GA.

Today's teaching laboratory acts as a flexible framework, holding dynamic student work groups, research zones, and support equipment in unlimited arrangements. As such, new design strategies must be put in place to address the needs of academic laboratory facilities:

• Plan for the unexpected. Too many buildings are designed for current needs and technologies. Buildings must have extra power, data, cooling, and space over and above the minimum current requirements to serve the future.

• As disciplinary barriers dissolve, there is a greater need for labs and experimental spaces to stage special short and long-term events. Scheduling challenges will become more difficult and the buildings and their technologies must be ready to adapt.

• Special visualization and virtual reality labs are becoming common elements of new science buildings, with a dramatic impact on the way space will be used.

• Personal digital devices that merge all computing, communication, and locating technologies will soon be common. Theses devices will need to connect with networks embedded in buildings or furniture to create a seamless net of information access and sharing.

• Sustainable design is a basic responsibility and should serve as a research, teaching, and policy-changing tool. Buildings will more intentionally express the impact of day-lighting strategies, the use of local and recyclable materials, will show off on-site wastewater and storm water systems strategies, and will be more thoughtfully and actively integrated into their sites.

• Building planners and owners must clearly understand where they are on the technology continuum and design to embrace the most current technology while creating a framework for the best technologies that will come.

Teaching laboratories differ from research labs in a number of ways. They require space for teaching equipment, such as a lectern and marker boards; they require storage space for student microscopes, book bags, and coats; and they have less instrumentation than in research labs. Also, teaching labs must support a wide range of dynamic activity from standard lectures to active team-based inquiry with all the tools and technology necessary to enable any teaching and learning task easily.

Interaction of learners and teachers occupying the same room has become more intentional, flexible and transparent to eliminate barriers and energize immediate and seamless collaboration. Classrooms must provide a greater level of visual and auditory contact between those sharing the room, and those beyond, to meet a higher standard of service to collaboration. Virtual reality and computer simulation technologies require more flexible space to serve these rapidly growing fields. Spaces must respond by becoming more flexible, changeable, and attuned to the senses.

Flexible teaching lab designs.

Lighting and acoustic control must be more sophisticated and flexible in every room, to allow the varied technologies to perform at their best. Powerful image capture and audio technology is becoming more pervasive in rooms, including offices, where people share information. Acoustic control and the design of the HVAC systems must be more sophisticated and flexible in every room, to allow the varied technologies to perform at their best. The sound level in laboratories-including those with fume hoods-must be as low as the classrooms' to allow normal conversations and collaboration. Lighting systems are more energy efficient and typically include daylight sensors and occupancy sensors. In all spaces, the control of the lighting is more adjustable to serve the varied presentation technologies and changes in scientific events that occur in each space.

Some disciplines will require fixed casework, benches, and utilities, but many teaching labs have mobile casework (equipped with locks) installed in a way that allows for different teaching environments and for multiple classes to be taught in the same space. Some teaching labs even use casework that a student can easily change in height to accommodate sit-down (30 in.) or stand-up (36 in.) work. The flexibility of the furniture encourages a variety of teaching and learning scenarios. In fact, properties of traditional, fixed lab furniture (stability and vibration resistance) are merging with properties of rolling/adjustable computer furniture (infinite mobility, plug and play capability, changeability) to create a new type of furniture for most scientific pursuits. This new breed blends the need for computer connections to everything with the ability to change the individual and team work environment immediately, or move it to another space. The additional cost of flexible furniture is offset by the amount of space saved by eliminating the requirement for separate sit-down and stand-up workstations.

Teaching lab caswork options.

Depending on the discipline and number of students, shared bench space can range from 15 to 30 linear feet per teaching laboratory; is usually configured as perimeter wall bench or center island bench; and is used for benchtop instruments, exhibiting displays, or distributing glass materials. Ten to 20 linear feet of wall space per lab should be left available for storage cabinets, as well as for built-in and movable equipment such as refrigerators and incubators. A typical student workstation is 3 to 4 feet wide with a file cabinet and data and electrical hookups for computers. Fume hoods shared by two students should be at least 6 ft. wide. The distance between student workbenches and fume hoods should be minimized to lessen the possibility of chemical spills.

For undergraduate courses, write-up areas are usually provided inside the lab. (Write-up areas for graduate students are generally located outside the lab, in offices.) A teaching lab must accommodate more people (i.e., students) and stools than does a typical research lab. Prep rooms, which allow faculty to set up supplies before classes, may be located between two teaching labs. The number of students typically enrolled in a course usually determines the size of the teaching lab used for that course. A typical lab module of 10 ft. 6 in. x 30 ft. (320 net square feet [nsf]) may support four to six students. An organic chemistry lab for 24 students would be approximately 1,600 nsf. Usually there is very little, if any, overhead shelving in the center of a lab. Overhead storage is at the perimeter walls, and the center of the lab has only base cabinets so as to maintain better sight lines for teaching and learning.

Lab courses are commonly taught from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. from Monday through Friday. As budgets tighten and continuing education and distance learning continue to grow in popularity, however, evening and Saturday classes may become more common in many colleges and universities. Moreover, some teaching labs being designed today will also be used for research. Because of these reasons, mechanical systems should be designed to be able to run at full capacity 24 hours a day, seven days a week. Also, a flexible design is recommended to accommodate enrollment fluctuations. A separate discussion room shared by several teaching labs may be an alternative to accommodating lectures in the lab. Teaching labs may be located adjacent to research labs in order to share resources. For example, if adjacent, advanced organic and inorganic chemistry labs and introductory chemistry labs can share some equipment.

C. Integrating Teaching and Research Labs

As the need for flexibility has grown and as science instruction, even at the undergraduate level, focuses more and more on hands-on experience, the traditional distinction between teaching and research labs becomes less important. An increasing number of institutions are integrating these areas to enhance undergraduate curricula and to facilitate communication between faculty and students at all levels. The greatest variances between teaching and research labs are space allocation and equipment needs. To compensate for those differences, some new facilities are designed with greater flexibility to allow lab space to be more adaptable and productive. There are several reasons for creating "homogenous" lab facilities:

• Students at all levels are introduced to current techniques.
• Such facilities encourage interaction between faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates.
• A standard laboratory module with basic services accommodates change quickly and economically.
• Common and specialized equipment may be shared.
• Common facilities can share support spaces, such as instrument rooms, prep rooms, and specialty rooms.
• Greater utilization of space and equipment enhances project cost justification.
• Teaching labs can be used for faculty research during semester breaks.

Emerging Issues

Technology in Academic Laboratories

• Few things are more compelling than a public display of learning. Large and small scale events and interactions should be encouraged by a building's easy access to simple technologies, including power and wireless networks – inside, outside, and at the student center and local café. Entrances and public greeting spaces must make the first impression unforgettable. A mix of scientific displays, interactive flat panel screens and real-time or digital video views into best teaching and research labs in action should be a basic requirement. The design should provide an unlimited access to the rich world of discovery.

• Smart board technology allows immediate capture of the projected image and anything written on the surface while surfing the web. The smart board type touch-screen interface creates an impressive and engaging presentation in the hands of a skillful user.

• Movable tables, equipment carts, and mobile lab casework will change the way students interact overnight, in response to pedagogical, curricular, or technology changes. Many teaching and research labs that do not require water and piped gases at each student position have fixed permanent casework and plumbing at the perimeter of the room only, with movable tables and wheeled casework providing the student work stations. The room configurations are limited only by the room size and our imagination. Overhead service carriers provide the hard-wired services needed at the movable tables. The cost and physical weight of lab furniture will begin to decrease, while the adaptability will increase.

• Teachers no longer have to be anchored to the podium or fixed technology platform. Using wireless computing and media controls, drawing and noting on the projected image or multiple images from any computer source in the room are possible. Wireless projectors provide picture-in-picture displays, are partnered with ceiling-mounted document cameras and can receive and project images from any wireless tablet or laptop in the room. Smart technologies allow the faculty to see the screen of every student computer in the room to track attention and progress.

• Labs now combine the best media control features of a technology-rich classroom with those of the most flexible lab. A lab may include one or two full teaching stations for projected and/or chalkboard presentations. The media systems and lighting for the lab are managed by a media control system that can be wall-mounted, desk-mounted or included in a remote wireless pad which can be carried around the room. Internet resources, past lectures, and the full media infrastructure of the campus is easily accessed and displayed in any lab or classroom in the building. Faculty (and students) can be anywhere in the room and control the presentation technology for their teaching lab or classroom. Soon partners in other cities or countries will be able to access the projector (with proper security permissions), sharing images and data real-time.

• Research labs must include a robust technological infrastructure accessible on-demand for an unpredictable range of unique opportunities. In some cases all elements of a research setting may be on wheels or demountable. An example of this plug-and-play approach in use in a pure research setting is the Bio-X initiative at the Clark Center at Stanford. The building was planned for almost any research use, without making any space specific to any single use or discipline. All lab furniture is on wheels and can be docked to overhead services in any configuration imaginable.

• Special scientific equipment that was typically held in a few rooms designed only for that purpose is now distributed in instrument rooms, student faculty research labs and teaching labs. More robust and more adaptable electrical and mechanical systems must be designed to allow the distribution of such equipment throughout the building.

Clients are pushing project design teams to create research laboratories that are responsive to current and future needs; that encourage interaction among scientists from various disciplines; that help recruit and retain qualified scientists; and that facilitates partnerships and development. As such, a separate WBDG Resource Page on Trends in Lab Design has been developed to elaborate on this emerging model of laboratory design.

Application

Representative Example

Florida Atlantic University, Charles E. Schmidt Biomedical Science Center, Boca Raton, FL
Architect: Perkins + Will      Completion: Fall 2001      Size: 90,000 gsf

Florida Atlantic University has created a new concept that combines both open and closed labs to accommodate core research teams. Many researchers still prefer to have some research space of their own. Consequently, 640 nsf are provided for each researcher, primarily for his or her own use and specific equipment. Another 640 nsf have been programmed for each researcher, located in a large open lab. This lab has fume hoods, laminar flow hoods, equipment, and casework to be shared by the entire research team. There can be a variety of research core areas (82 ft. x 82 ft.) on the second and third floors.

Another idea implemented in this facility is a two-directional grid that allows the casework to be organized in either the north/south or east/west orientation. This provides for maximum flexibility and allows the researchers to create labs that meet their needs.

The labs are arranged with 50 percent casework and 50 percent equipment zones. The equipment zones allow the research team to locate equipment, mobile casework, or fixed casework in their lab when they move in. The equipment and future casework will be funded with other budgets or grants. This concept is very important for this project for two reasons. First, the university has not yet hired the faculty, so the specific research requirements are still unknown. Second, this concept reduces the casework cost in the initial construction budget by at least 40 percent ($600,000). The cost will be added to the furniture budget when the mobile casework is purchased.

The interior design is being developed with the use of the three-dimensional (3–D) modeling. Computer modeling gives the design team, and most importantly, the client, an opportunity to study all aspects of the interior spaces as they will exist when the project is completed. The 3-D modeling also ensures that all design decisions are thoughtfully resolved by the end of the design development process.

Concept diagrams for all the engineering systems are fully coordinated at the end of the schematic design phase. Creating these diagrams gets the engineers involved in the design, makes sure the design team has fully coordinated all systems in the building (not just architectural), and should simplify coordination for the rest of the project. The intent here is to be proactive early in the design process so as to reduce the number of change orders during construction. See also WBDG 'Whole Buildings' Approach. The building is zoned with lab and non-lab spaces to decrease overall construction costs.

Relevant Codes and Standards

The following agencies and organizations have developed codes and standards affecting the design of research laboratories. Note that the codes and standards are minimum requirements. Architects, engineers, and consultants should consider exceeding the applicable requirements whenever possible.

• 29 CFR 1910.1450: OSHA "Occupational Exposures to Hazardous Chemicals in Laboratories"
• ANSI/ASSE/AIHA Z9.5 Laboratory Ventilation
• ANSI/ISEA Z358.1 Emergency Eyewash and Shower Equipment
• ASHRAE 110 Method of Testing Performance of Laboratory Fume Hoods
• ASHRAE Applications Handbook, Chapter 16 Laboratories
• ASHRAE Laboratory Design Guide, 2nd Edition
• Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care (AAALAC) Standards
• Biosafety in Microbiological and Biomedical Laboratories (BMBL) 5th Edition, Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and National Institutes of Health.
• Guidelines for the Laboratory Use of Chemical Carcinogens, Pub. No. 81-2385. National Institutes of Health
• NIH Design Requirements Manual, National Institutes of Health
• NFPA 30 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code
• NFPA 45 Fire Protection for Laboratories using Chemical
• Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS)—organized by MasterFormat™ divisions, are for use in specifying construction for the military services. Several UFGS exist for safety-related topics.

Additional Resources

Publications

• Building Type Basics for Research Laboratories, 2nd Edition by Daniel Watch. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008. ISBN# 978-0-470-16333-7.
• CRC Handbook of Laboratory Safety, 5th ed. by A. Keith Furr. CRC Press, 2000.
• Design and Planning of Research and Clinical Laboratory Facilities by Leonard Mayer. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.
• Design for Research: Principals of Laboratory Architecture by Susan Braybrooke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993.
• Guidelines for Laboratory Design: Health and Safety Considerations, 4th Editionby Louis J. DiBerardinis, et al. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2013.
• Guidelines for Planning and Design of Biomedical Research Laboratory Facilities by The American Institute of Architects, Center for Advanced Technology Facilities Design. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects, 1999.
• Handbook of Facilities Planning, Vol. 1: Laboratory Facilities by T. Ruys. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990.
• Laboratories, A Briefing and Design Guide by Walter Hain. London, UK: E & FN Spon, 1995.
• Laboratory by Earl Walls Associates, May 2000.
• Laboratory Design from the Editors of R&D Magazine.
• Laboratory Design, Construction, and Renovation: Participants, Process, and Product by National Research Council, Committee on Design, Construction, and Renovation of Laboratory Facilities. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2000.
• Planning Academic Research Facilities: A Guidebook by National Science Foundation. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation, 1992.
• Science and Engineering Research Facilities at Colleges and Universities by National Science Foundation, Division of Science Resources Studies. Arlington, VA, 1998.

Others

• Laboratories for the 21st Century (Labs21)—Sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Department of Energy, Labs21 is a voluntary program dedicated to improving the environmental performance of U.S. laboratories.

Overview

Academic libraries include college and university libraries. Commonly referred to as research libraries, they are often used by students as a quiet place for study and research. In fact, a survey of students at the University of Notre Dame revealed that the majority of students use academic libraries as a place for study, using their own materials. The same user behavior is common to most academic libraries. As a result, when planning academic libraries, it is imperative for the design team to incorporate quiet, comfortable, and adequate space for study. Since academic libraries rely heavily on collections of print material, as opposed, for example, to the large variety of video, audio, and other forms of media commonly found in school libraries, compact shelving to house growing collections is equally an important design consideration as adequate reader seating.

Building Attributes

A. Types of Spaces

There are many broad types of academic library space:

• Collection space
• Electronic workstation space
• Multimedia workstation space
• Viewing rooms and listening rooms
• User seating space
• Staff work space
• Meeting space
• Auditorium or larger lecture space
• Special use space
• Non-assignable space (including mechanical space)

B. Planning Considerations

According to the Association of College and Research Libraries' (ACRL) Standards for College Libraries 2000 Edition, "the library facility should be well planned; it should provide secure and adequate space, conducive to study and research with suitable environmental conditions for its services, personnel, resources, and collections. This library's equipment should be adequate and functional." ACRL provides the following list of questions to answer when developing the academic library program:

• Does the library provide well-planned, secure, and adequate space for users? See also WBDG Functional / Operational—Account for Functional Needs.
• Are building mechanical systems properly designed and maintained to control temperature and humidity at recommended levels?
• What are the perceptions of users regarding the provisions of conducive study spaces, including a sufficient number of seats and varied types of seating? See also WBDG Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace.
• Is there enough space for the library's collections?
• Does the staff have sufficient workspace, and is it configured to promote efficient operations? See also WBDG Productive.
• If there are branch libraries, do they have sufficient space for the collections and staff?
• Is the library's signage adequate? See also WBDG Accessible.
• Does the library provide ergonomic workstations for its users and staff? See also WBDG Secure / Safe—Occupant Safety and Health.
• Are electrical and network wiring sufficient to meet the needs associated with electronic access?
• Does the library meet the accessibility guidelines of the Americans with Disabilities Act? See also WBDG Accessible.
• Are facilities provided to distance learners?

Design Considerations

Design considerations for contemporary academic library space planning are outlined below:

Kent State University provides access to Worldwide Web resources in its libraries as a service to its users. Photo Credit: Kent State University

• Modern academic libraries must contain flexible shelving arrangements to house growing collections of research media. It is recommended that floors be designed for 150 pounds per square foot (psf) live loads to allow the arrangement of standard full-height shelving anywhere in the library. Since future growth may require shelving to be relocated, 150 psf design loads will allow the standard full-height shelving to be placed anywhere without being concerned about potential structural damage from excessive point loads caused by overloaded shelves. Increasing the design load to 300 psf allows compact shelving, as opposed to standard shelving, to be placed anywhere. Compact shelving houses a greater quantity of media than standard shelving. See also WBDG Functional / Operational.

• Movement between adjacent spaces must be fluid. Separations by columns and load-bearing walls must be minimized as they prevent easy future expansion. Since the library's population of media as well as patrons typically increases as the years pass, future growth and expansion should be taken into consideration in the library's design program at the onset of any academic library project. See also WBDG Functional / Operational-Account for Functional Needs, Productive-Design for the Changing Workplace, Accessible—Beyond Accessibility to Universal Design.

• Fourteen to 15-foot ceiling heights are recommended to accommodate large ductwork. Low-voltage telephone and data distribution systems are often arranged in open visible troffers and coves so that the library space can be easily arranged at a later time without the concern of relocating communications connections. See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.

• User needs require that academic libraries continually update its collections. As collections grow, storage/shelving space decreases. As a result, compact shelving must be included in any academic library. Storage of periodicals or government documents in compact shelving has become common practice.



Computer classroom at Marist College's James A. Cannavino Library, Poughkeepsie, NY Photo Credit: Perry Dean Rogers Partners Architects

• Adequate space for information and media systems should be included in the library program. Most building programs now include information systems, instructional space, media storage, production facilities, and often the campus' computer services. See also WBDG Productive—Accommodate Technological Tools.

• Technology has demanded new kinds of space needs. Computer workstations with adequate space for a librarian's assistance are essential and require added floor space. Electronic information kiosks located near library entrances require floor space not taken into consideration during the days before the emergence of computer technology. In addition, user needs now demand adequate space for group study, interlibrary loan centers, and seminar rooms, among others. See also WBDG Functional / Operational—Account for Functional Needs.

• The space needs for workstations mimic that required to accommodate office workstations at 30 to 35 square feet for each reader. Although computers are commonly placed in any academic library design, space for backpacks, notebooks, and hardcopy research materials is still essential. See also WBDG Productive.

Emerging Issues

In addition to the emerging issues of sustainable design and wiring technology to accommodate modern communications (see Public Libraries: Emerging Issues), digital media, and the space required to accommodate it, is experiencing rapid growth. Digital media resources come in many forms including Internet delivery and satellite technology. Some of the program considerations for media resources in academic libraries as noted in the Association of College and Research Libraries' "Guidelines for Media Resources in Academic Libraries" are as follows:

• The media resources program should provide adequate space for housing collections and for use of the materials. Media space design should consider the rapidly evolving world of digital media and the attendant networking requirements. Magnetic materials and optical storage media required specialized storage for conservation and preservation. Archival collections should receive special treatment and handling.

• Media resources should be available in a variety of playback situations, including a mixture of individual, small group, and large group viewing facilities.

• Archival media resources collections require specialized storage and handling. The library should establish a program for archiving media resources, even if housed in a separate special collection. Some media resources may need to address long-term environmental impacts from humidity and temperature.

Increasingly, academic curricula are based on collaborative and group projects. As a result, there is less and less emphasis on traditional, individual study settings, such as long rows of individual study carrels. Instead, academic libraries are developing learning centers, which provide group study rooms and settings, well-supported by access to electronic information resources, hardware tools, and associated productivity software. See also WBDG Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace and Productive—Integrate Technological Tools for flexible design concepts, which are applicable to academic libraries.

Some academic libraries are also implementing wireless communications technologies to allow library staff members to roam through the stacks and reader seating, without being bound to a reference desk, the better to provide support to patrons at the point of contact.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Model Building Codes that may apply include the following (check with local building departments for code requirements):

• ICC IBC International Building Code

Note: Some states have their own state-written building codes. In addition, some localities have their own local codes. State and local building departments are the best resource for applicable codes.

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
• American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)
• Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)

Also note that the American Library Association, Building and Equipment Section has published a guide to recommended space allocations for furnishings, equipment, and resources to be housed in the library:

• Building Blocks for Planning Functional Library Space 3rd Edition, Scarecrow Press, 2011.

Additional Resources

Associations

• American Library Association (ALA)
  • Association of College and Research Libraries (ACRL)
  • ACRL Guidelines, Standards, and Frameswork

Publications

• Academic Libraries as High-Tech Gateways: A Guide to Design & Space Decisions, 2nd ed. by Richard J. Bazillion and Connie Braun. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 2000.
• Building a Scholarly Communications Center: Modeling the Rutgers Experience by Boyd Collins, et al. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 1999.
• Planning Academic and Research Library Buildings, 3rd ed. by Philip D. Leighton and David C. Weber. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 1999.
• Planning Additions to Academic Library Buildings: A Seamless Approach by Pat Hawthorne and Ron G. Martin, eds. Chicago, IL: American Library Association, 1995.

The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles, telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing technical assistance and training on these guidelines; and enforcing accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the Access Board's Listing of Other Resources. Animations of many accessibility solutions can be found on the Animations page.

This page provides an overview of the ABA and ADA Standards, and other Guidelines to consider for access. This information should be considered in context with the overall design objectives of the project and the information in the Accessible branch of the WBDG.

ABA STANDARDS

Standards issued under the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) apply to facilities designed, built, altered, or leased with certain federal funds. Passed in 1968, the ABA is one of the first laws to address access to the built environment. The law applies to federal buildings, including post offices, social security offices, federal courthouses and prisons, and national parks. It also covers non-federal facilities, such as public housing units and mass transit systems, built or altered with federal grants or loans. Coverage is limited to those funding programs that give the federal agency awarding grants or loans the authority to establish facility standards.

The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), U.S. General Services Administration (GSA), U.S. Postal Service (USPS), and U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) are the ABA standard-setting agencies. DOD, GSA, and USPS adopted Parts 2 and 3 of the Access Board's guidelines, making them enforceable ABA Standards. HUD has not yet adopted the guidelines; consequently, non-military housing subject to the ABA must still comply with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards first issued in 1984. All currently applicable ABA standards are available online.

The following three standard-setting agencies(*) have published their new ABA standards, consistent with the updated ABA guidelines:

• The U.S. Postal Service (USPS) published the "USPS Standards for Facility Accessibility" in the Federal Register in May 2005, effective for all owned and leased facilities on October 1, 2005.

• The U.S. General Services Administration (GSA) published the "ABA Accessibility Standard" in the Federal Register in November 2005, effective for all new design, construction and alterations of GSA owned buildings on May 9, 2006, all lease-construction on June 30, 2006 and all other leases on February 7, 2007.

• The Department of Defense (DOD) adopted the "ABA Accessibility Standard for Department of Defense Facilities" by memorandum dated October 31, 2008, effective for all new design, construction and alterations on October 31, 2008.

(*) The Department of Housing and Urban Development has not yet adopted its new ABA accessibility standard, and is still using the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS).

ADA STANDARDS

The Access Board celebrated the 50th Anniversary of the ABA in September 2018.

The ADA Standards govern the construction and alteration of places of public accommodation, commercial facilities, state and local government facilities, and transportation facilities. The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) and the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) establish the ADA Standards. Both agencies have adopted Parts 1 and 3 of the Access Board's guidelines. In their regulations DOJ and DOT included some additional requirements unique to facilities within their jurisdiction. DOJ's 2010 ADA Standards replaced the original 1991 ADA Standards and became effective on March 15, 2012. DOT's revised ADA Standards became effective in November, 2006. Both ADA Standards are available online.

The following standard-setting agencies have published their new ADA standards, consistent with the updated ADA guidelines:

• The U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT) published the "ADA Standards for Transportation Facilities" in the Federal Register in October 2006, effective for all new design, construction and alterations on November 29, 2006.

• The U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) published the "2010 ADA Standards for Accessible Design" in the Federal Register in September 2010, effective for all new design, construction and alterations except transportation facilities on March 15, 2012.

For more information, contact the U.S. Access Board for a guide to ADA and ABA Accessibility Guidelines and the online versions of the current ADA and ABA accessibility standards in effect for the standard-setting Federal agencies.

ADA AND ABA ACCESSIBILITY GUIDELINES

The U.S. Access Board issues accessibility guidelines under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA). The Board's guidelines are the mandatory baseline for accessibility standards issued by other Federal agencies authorized to establish accessibility standards under the ADA or the ABA. Until the Board's guidelines are adopted by one or more of these standard-setting agencies, they are not enforceable.

In 2004, the Access Board updated its ADA and ABA Accessibility Guidelines and published them in a single document containing three parts. Part 1 contains application and scoping for ADA covered facilities; Part 2 contains application and scoping for ABA covered facilities; and, Part 3 contains technical requirements common to both the ADA and ABA.

HOUSING ACCESSIBILITY GUIDELINES

THE FAIR HOUSING ACT

The Fair Housing Act (FHA) was passed in 1968 as Title VIII of the Civil Rights Act of 1968, prohibiting discrimination in the sale and rental of housing as well as other housing-related transactions. The Fair Housing Act was amended in 1988 to include protections for people with disabilities, requiring certain housing projects to meet a basic level of accessibility. In response, the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) adopted accessible design and construction guidelines to implement the accessibility requirements of the FHA. The guidelines apply to "covered" multifamily dwellings with four or more units designed and constructed for first occupancy after March 13, 1991.

SECTION 504 OF THE REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (Section 504) is a federal accessibility law which seeks to prevent discrimination, based on disability, under any program or activity receiving financial assistance from any federal agency, including the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD). Section 504 requires newly constructed multifamily dwellings with five or more units, and alterations of housing facilities in HUD-assisted programs to meet the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS). The UFAS Standards are available online.

HUD issued a Notice, effective May 23, 2014, that permits HUD recipients to use the 2010 Standards for Accessible Design (2010 Standards) as an alternative to UFAS to comply with the accessibility requirements of Section 504. However, HUD has deemed certain provisions of the 2010 Standards to provide less accessibility than is currently required by UFAS. There is a list of exceptions that exist for HUD recipients that elect to use the 2010 Standards to ensure the project meets at least the same degree of accessibility as is currently required under Section 504 and UFAS. HUD's Notice remains in effect until the agency formally adopts an updated accessibility standard for compliance with Section 504. For more information, contact HUD for guidance on the FHA or Section 504 standard currently in effect.

SECTION 508 (FEDERAL ELECTRONIC AND INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY)

With more online working environments and experiences becoming the norm, it is important to address Section 508 requirements. President Clinton signed into law the Rehabilitation Act Amendments of 1998, which covers access to federally funded programs and services. The law strengthens section 508 of the Rehabilitation Act and requires access to electronic and information technology provided by the federal government. The law applies to all federal agencies when they develop, procure, maintain, or use electronic and information technology. Federal agencies must ensure that this technology is accessible to employees and members of the public with disabilities to the extent it does not pose an “undue burden.” Section 508 speaks to various means for disseminating information, including computers, software, and electronic office equipment. It applies to, but is not solely focused on, federal pages on the Internet or the Web. It does not apply to web pages of private industry. For more information, see Section508.gov.

Overview

"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal..." — Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776

In daily life, as we maneuver through society, nothing is more important yet taken for granted more often than access. For millions of people with disabilities, the access that most of us take for granted is difficult, impossible, or achievable only with the intervention of a third party. We live in what is considered an independent society, yet independent access to programs, facilities, and employment is not easily achievable by many. Physical access is historically the arbiter of success and the source of opportunity in education, employment, and social freedom. Thus, accessibility is a civil rights issue for many people with disabilities and for society. See the History of Accessible Facility Design to learn more.

Whole building design requires a balanced and integrated approach to all the design objectives, including accessibility.

So information in these Accessible pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-performance buildings.

Definition and Goals of Accessible Design

Principles and a process that support accessible design include:

Understand the Laws, Codes, and Standards that Apply

Know what laws apply and which standards they reference depending on the type of project:

Image Courtesty of Bill Brack

• Project developer (government vs. private entity)
• Project use (residential, retail, office, etc.)
• Funding sources (public vs. private)
• Building type (new construction vs. renovation)
• Housing type (Single family vs. multifamily)
• Housing ownership (Condo vs. rental)

See here for more information.

Plan for Access

Successful integration of accessible design into the whole design process requires careful consideration of potentially conflicting goals for a project at its earliest stages. The design team must identify conflicts as well as synergies in order to meet project challenges. Sustainability, historic preservation, safety/security, and aesthetics can be problematic for accessibility. The following are a few examples:

• A parking lot for a new state office building is designed with pervious pavers to meet sustainability goals. The pavers have openings of 5/8". The pavers located along the accessible route to the building violate the accessibility standard, which requires a maximum opening of 1/2".

• A historic Federal building has a monumental entrance raised 5'–0" above grade and accessed only by stairs. The State Historic Preservation Officer has determined that altering the entrance to include a wheelchair ramp would destroy historic fabric and irreparably damage the building. GSA's accessibility standard provides an exception that allows the use of an alternative entrance in this case in order to provide access, although persons with disabilities will not be able to enter the building through the main entrance.

• A new city courthouse has lowered office and corridor lighting power density levels (mandated by local energy code requirements to reduce energy consumption). Persons with low vision, public and staff, are adversely affected by the requirements because they require brighter lighting to facilitate functioning in the spaces.

• A new Federal courthouse has 4'–0" x 4'–0" security planters installed at the perimeter of the site. The planters are spaced 2'–10" apart and cross the accessible route into the building. The planters are in violation of GSA's accessibility standard, which requires a minimum clearance of 3'–0" between the planters crossing the accessible route.

• An architect has designed a performing arts center on a steeply sloping site. The entrance location requires persons on foot to negotiate a 10'–0' downhill change in level from the street, where there is public transportation available. The architect has designed a series of landscaped terraces and stairs to get from street level to the plaza in front of the entrance, but has not included ramps because they would "compromise" his design. Instead, he uses an enclosed elevator for disabled persons. Two months after the center opens, the elevator has mechanical problems and is out of service.

Identify potential conflicts at the conceptual level of a project in an integrated design team environment to avoid problems and conflicts such as the examples cited. This results in a thoughtful and successful project for all of the stakeholders.

• Plan for access into the facility
  • Plan the location of accessible entrances and facility access points when positioning buildings on sites to:
    • Limit travel distances for people with disabilities from site arrival points, such as public sidewalks, public transportation stops, and parking, to accessible building and facility entrances.
    • Provide accessible routes which require low-effort. Where ever possible, provide walks with no more than 1:20 running slope over ramps. When ramps are required design ramps with lower running slopes and not at the maximum permitted 1:12 permitted.
    • Provide equivalent access and travel options to those provided for people without disabilities.
    • Provide equivalent, safe, easy, and compliant access into the facility while maximizing security.
• Plan for access to spaces within the facility
  • Plan the layout of facility spaces to best accommodate all persons, including people with disabilities, such as:
    • Layout spaces whenever possible to limit travel distance between elements within the space.
    • Group and centralize spaces to limit the amount of travel required between the spaces. For instance, in a residential garden style apartment complex, centrally locating the swimming pool and associated amenities is preferred to locating the swimming pool and amenities at one end of the site.
    • Limit the need for travel between levels and the reliance on elevators and lifts, if possible. Although, obviously not an option between stories of high-rise buildings, limiting the need for vertical access on sites and within one and two story facilities and between intermediate levels of high-rise facilities reduces the likelihood of interruptions in the accessible routes, due to elevator/lift malfunctions, and limits the need to install ramps. Where vertical access is required between two levels, ramps designed at low grade, are an option to permit guaranteed access. Ramps can often be creatively integrated into designs without negatively impacting the aesthetics. For instance, integrating ramped access into a swimming pool can avoid the need to install an industrial looking pool lift which can clearly stand out from the overall design.
    • Choose lighting options which accommodate people with low-vision.

Provide Equal Access and Flexibility Accessible design benefits all of us at some point in our lives. The goal of accessible design is to provide equal use of the built environment for all people.

Incorporate Best Practices for Accessibility Compliance Overall best practices to achieve compliance with accessibility regulations should be considered through the entire project cycle, including concept design through construction completion.

Go Beyond Accessibility to Universal Design Being proactive by planning for flexible design features and products will increase the likelihood of providing equal access over the life cycle of the facility.

Understand the Relationship between Universal Design and Health An integral part of designing high performance spaces for people with disabilities is incorporating health and wellness into the built environment.

Related Issues

Building Information Modeling

A Building Information Model (BIM) is a digital representation of physical and functional characteristics of a facility. As such, it serves as a shared knowledge resource for information about a facility forming a reliable basis for decisions during its life cycle from inception onward. BIM has the potential to truly integrate accessibility into a project by considering accessibility early and throughout all phases of the project.

Wheeled Anthropometry

Anthropometry is the study of the dimensions and abilities of the human body. The IDEA Center in Buffalo started a major long-range program to establish a database on the anthropometry of wheeled mobility in 1999. This program was initiated as part of the Rehabilitation Engineering Research Center on Universal Design at Buffalo. The U.S. Access Board also began supporting the effort in 2001. A final report on Anthropometry of Wheeled Mobility Project is now available. Click here to download a PDF version of the Anthropometry of Wheeled Mobility Project report prepared for the U.S. Access Board.

Accessible Design and the Relationship to Sustainable Design

Automatic lighting and fixture controls are a win-win for both sustainability and accessibility.

Whole building design must consider the relationship between accessible and sustainable design. Simply put, buildings which are not designed to be accessible are not sustainable. A sustainable building is sensitive to the environment and to its users. Designing buildings for equitable use by the greatest number of people can be achieved by complying with regulatory accessibility requirements, incorporating Universal Design and Visitability concepts, and including adaptable design features.

For some time now, federal, state, and local laws and codes have required accessible design in most building types. When required accessibility is not incorporated at the onset of design or during construction, the risk of complaints of non-compliance and even litigation exists. The result could include required retrofits. Retrofitting buildings due to lack of accessibility compliance, which can create unnecessary waste and energy, is not consistent with the goals of sustainability.

Sustainability and accessibility are intrinsically linked in the design process. For example, when locating buildings on a site to optimize solar orientation, accessibility of the building entrance(s) must be taken into consideration. Will optimal solar orientation create a condition that results in building entrances which are located on a circuitous route from site arrival points? Accessibility must also be considered when selecting sustainable building materials. For example, pervious pavers may be specified to increase water infiltration, but if the installation of the pavers results in wide spaces between them or an unstable ground surface, then accessibility is not achieved.

Lighting Levels and Low Vision

The Low Vision Design Committee (LVDC) of NIBS recognized that the needs of all occupants of the built environment, including those with low vision, should have adequate lighting levels. Through improvements in designs and operational procedures for new and existing facilities the committee developed Design Guidelines that enhance the function, safety, and quality of life.

21st Century Work Space

The high cost of office space in many urban areas, shrinking budgets for space, the use of telework, flexible work scheduling, hoteling and virtual work, and new technologies such as teleconferencing, web casting, telepresence, virtual phones, and Webex have moved designers to plan downsized office space where the number of work stations is significantly lower than the number of employees in order to maximize the use of space, whether owned or leased. In this arrangement, managers and employees share the same work space and there are no private offices. A docking station for a laptop computer and single or double monitors are provided at each work station. There are no desktop computers, so each person must bring their laptop computer with them on an office day. There are also no reception counters or spaces. Common "break rooms" contain cabinets, counters, refrigerators and microwave ovens that may be shared by multiple organizations. Common shared printers are kept to a minimum, and there are no individual printers. There are also communal coat closets adjacent to the work space for coats, umbrellas, etc.

GSA, a Federal agency, is using a system known as "Bookit" for employees to reserve work stations in this new type of work environment. Employees can reserve their work space for a maximum of two weeks in advance, and there is no guarantee that they will get the same work station even on two consecutive days. Work stations are reserved for an hour from the check-in time on each reservation day. When employees arrive, they notify the "Bookit" system so that the space cannot be taken by another person. Small individual lockers with electronic combination locks hold valuables and essential items. Common storage space such as lateral files are limited but available for program files and documents required for employees to do their jobs. There are also "touchdown stations" that are not subject to the "Bookit" system which can be used by employees who do not book their workstations in advance because of lack of availability or because they are only in the office for part of a work day. Private telephone conversations and small meetings are accommodated in small glass enclosed rooms with tables and three or four chairs, adjacent to the common work space. These rooms are used on an ad hoc basis. Larger conference rooms are also managed through the "Bookit" system and do not belong to any specific organizational entity, so it is possible that larger meetings may take place in other locations than where the specific organizational space is located.

Employees with disabilities who require special assistive technology, as well as certain employees who use a large amount of technology required for their jobs that is not portable, require special consideration and exceptions to the general way the space is utilized, and are provided with dedicated work stations. However, because persons with certain disabilities require provisions such as higher light levels and significant glare reduction, audio amplification, etc., commonly shared office space could prove to be an obstacle for them even though they have dedicated work stations. Consider including adjustable height workstations as well to allow for variation and flexibility in work space needs. (See also Changing Nature of Organizations, Work, and Workplace.)

Relevant Codes, Standards, Laws, and Guidelines

Codes and Standards

• ASME A17.1/CSA B44 Handbook on Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators
• ASME A18.1 Safety Standard for Platform Lifts and Stairway Chairlifts
• International Code Council (ICC)—ICC is the secretariat for the following:
  • ICC A117.1 Standard for Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities
  • International Building Code
  • International Existing Building Code
  • International Residential Code
• National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)
  • NFPA 72® National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code®
  • NFPA 5000® Building Construction and Safety Code®
  • NFPA 101® Life Safety Code®
• Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards

Guidelines

• Americans with Disabilities Act and Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities
• Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines

Laws

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): The ADA prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in employment, State and local government, public accommodations, commercial facilities, transportation, and telecommunications. It also applies to the United States Congress.

• Architectural Barriers Act (ABA): The Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) requires that buildings and facilities that are designed, constructed, or altered with Federal funds, or leased by a Federal agency, comply with Federal standards for physical accessibility. ABA requirements are limited to architectural standards in new and altered buildings and in newly leased facilities. They do not address the activities conducted in those buildings and facilities. Facilities of the U.S. Postal Service are covered by the ABA.

• Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988 (FHA): The Fair Housing Act, as amended in 1988, prohibits housing discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, disability, familial status, and national origin. Its coverage includes private housing, housing that receives Federal financial assistance, and State and local government housing. It is unlawful to discriminate in any aspect of selling or renting housing or to deny a dwelling to a buyer or renter because of the disability of that individual, an individual associated with the buyer or renter, or an individual who intends to live in the residence. Other covered activities include, for example, financing, zoning practices, new construction design, and advertising.

• Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504 & Section 508: The Rehabilitation Act prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial assistance, in Federal employment, and in the employment practices of Federal contractors. The standards for determining employment discrimination under the Rehabilitation Act are the same as those used in title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act.

Additional Resources

Federal Mandates, Legislation, etc.

• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
• Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)
• Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988 (FHAA)
• Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines
• Help America Vote Act
• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973

Organizations

• ADA & IT Technical Assistance Centers
• ADA National Network
• International Living Future Institute, Living Building Challenge
• U.S. Green Building Council LEED for Neighborhood Development

Federal Agencies

The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles, telecommunications equipment, electronic and information technology, and medical diagnostic equipment providing technical assistance and training on these guidelines; and enforcing accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the Access Board's Listing of Other Resources. Animations of many accessibility solutions can be found on the Animations page.

• Department of Defense—ABA Accessibility Standard for DOD Facilities 

• Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act under regulations to the ABA and has issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines) which cover multi-family housing. Information is also available on how to file a complaint with HUD under the Fair Housing Act. HUD's website also addresses access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act. See also HUD's Accessibility Requirements for Buildings.

• Department of Justice (DOJ)—DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical assistance letters are available online.

  • ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals: (800) 514-0301 (voice) (800) 514-0383 (TTY)
• Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—Barrier-Free Design Standard
• General Services Administration (GSA)—Accessible Facility Design
• U.S. Navy—Accessibility Requirements for Navy and Marine Corps Facilities
• U.S. Park Service—Director's Order #42: Accessibility for Visitors with Disabilities in National Park Service Programs and Services
• U.S. Department of Transportation—Accessibility
• U.S. Postal Service— Handbook RE-4 Standards for Facility Accessibility

Publications

• The 1995 Accessible Building Product Guide by John P.S. Salmen and Julie Quarve-Peterson. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.
• Access by Design by George A. Covington and Bruce Hannah. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.
• The Accessible Housing Design File by Barrier Free Environments, Inc. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.

Others

• Building Research Information Knowledgebase (BRIK)—an interactive portal offering online access to peer-reviewed research projects and case studies in all facets of building, from predesign, design, and construction through occupancy and reuse.

Training

• Accessibility course in WBDG continuing education

Overview

Building projects must place a balanced priority on the protection of building occupants and assets as well as the preservation of cultural resources. So, it is important to address the protection of the building's historic spaces, finishes, and collections in the design and implementation of safety and security measures. Because each historic building is unique, cost effective, synergistic, performance solutions developed in a collaborative environment will produce the best results. See also WBDG Whole Building Approach.

Architects and engineers are licensed to be responsible for Life Safety. However, all design professionals including, facility managers, fire, security and code officials, curators, preservation officials, and building occupants should be involved early on in the planning and design process. This allows the project team to look at issues holistically and remain flexible to the challenges of the historic property.

Description

Incorporate Life Safety Codes

The primary codes that address life safety are NFPA 101 Life Safety Code, the International Building Code, and NFPA 914 Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures. NFPA 914 addresses performance approaches and equivalencies for achieving code compliance. Application of these codes should be done in consultation with code authorities and preservation experts. A number of states have enacted rehabilitation and historic building codes that may lessen the alteration of historic material (see Relevant Codes and Standards below). These codes address the following issues, depending on type of use:

• Egress: Preserve the primary, main, ceremonial entrance experience. Where existing stairs cannot be brought into compliance without significantly changing the character of the spaces, additional means of egress should be carefully located to preserve significant spaces while providing a minimum of two means of egress.

• Fire and Smoke Separation: Design smoke separation to avoid subdividing or obscuring significant spaces, such as stairways, corridors, entry areas.

• Fire and Smoke Detection: Early detection of heat and smoke is critical to extinguishing fires with minimum damage to historic resources. Very early response/detection systems can eliminate the need for suppression systems. This is not a common practice, and careful coordination with the relevant Authority having Jurisdiction is required. See also Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001 . This publication provides guidance on location of detection devices unobtrusively.

712 Grove Avenue, Petersburg, Virginia, showing the use of drywall behind transoms on doors on this hallway. Adding drywall behind the glass is a visual change, but it does alter the overall character of the hallway. However, the solution is reversible and preserves the materials in place.

Door assemblies on the interiors of historic buildings commonly include glazed transoms, which were originally used for light and ventilation. Modern fire marshals, however, restrict unprotected glass facing corridors or other public spaces due to the spread of flames and smoke should the glass break. To meet fire and life safety requirements, transoms and glass may be in-filled with painted wallboard from behind. This action slightly changes the appearance of the door assemblies, but the overall character of these features remains intact; it both satisfies code officials and meets the Secretary of the Interior's Standards.

To retain the open primary stair in the lobby of a 1920s apartment building (as opposed to enclosing the stair for fire separation), a glass "smoke curtain" was installed at the top of this feature. Along with providing sprinklers on the interior, this treatment was allowed by code officials to safely protect the occupants in the event of a fire.

• Fire Suppression Systems: The purpose of fire suppression systems is to cover all surfaces evenly. However, this can result in damage to historic finishes. Evaluate fire loads to determine appropriate protection. Use computer modeling to identify high-risk areas. Select and locate fire suppression systems to minimize water and subsequent mold damage to historic fabric. Alternative suppression systems such as dry systems (where lines are not filled with water), mist systems, and time delay with alarms prior to activation, help reduce water damage. Halon has been phased out, so the designer should specify a currently acceptable substitute for Halon as required. Careful and sensitive installation of suppression systems is critical to the preservation of the character of historic spaces. See the WBDG Secure/Safe—Fire Protection.

Sympathetic installation of fire suppression system at decorative ceiling.

• Operational Considerations: Include operational and management solutions for life safety and historic preservation when designing the systems. Ensure that staff and occupants are trained to respond promptly and summon additional resources in event of an emergency situation.

Integrate Seismic Upgrades

Increased concern about seismic risk has led to more stringent requirements that can negatively impact historic buildings. Un-reinforced masonry construction, common to many historic buildings and structures, is particularly susceptible to damage in seismic events. The challenge of seismic upgrades in historic buildings is to accommodate strengthening in ways that do not interfere with the building façade or the volume and features of significant public spaces. For these reasons the input of qualified structural engineers with knowledge of and experience in preservation of historic buildings is essential. (Refer also to WBDG Seismic Design Principles). Wherever possible:

Coordinate proposed seismic upgrades with other structural improvements such as strengthening of buildings to prevent progressive collapse as part of anti-terrorism force protection measures. Refer also to WBDG Historic—Update Systems Appropriately, Structural section and Preservation Brief 41: The Seismic Retrofit of Historic Buildings: Keeping Preservation in the Forefront by David W. Look, AIA, Terry Wong, PE, and Sylvia Rose Augustus. National Park Service .

Provide Building Security

General building security involves technical, physical, and operational solutions with appropriate redundancies. Before security measures are designed, a threat/vulnerability assessment and risk analysis should be conducted to determine the potential threats and acceptable levels of risk. Regarding historic preservation, wherever possible:

• Integrate security design to minimize visual and other impacts on the historic fabric of the building. A principle goal of the entry experience is to maintain a setting that is welcoming to the visitor.
• Seek opportunities to create amenities that are seamless with historic character.
• Seek opportunities to create public spaces that address security measures and enhance historic character (e.g., standoff distances reduce the need to modify buildings).

Anti-Terrorism/ Force Protection (ATFP) requirements as detailed in UFC 4-010-01 may have significant impact on historic resources at Department of Defense (DoD) locations. After the loss of 19 American servicemen at the Khobar Towers bombing in 1996, the need for building standards to protect human lives at DoD facilities was recognized. Subsequent attacks on US facilities overseas, culminating in the 9/11 attacks have resulted in the current ATFP standards for buildings. Renovation projects for DoD facilities where the project cost exceeds 50% of the replacement value of the building, any glazing (window or skylight) replacement, or addition which exceeds 50% of the gross area require compliance with the UFC (Section 1-8.2.1).

The primary focus of ATFP requirements is to prevent mass casualties and reduce injury by avoiding progressive collapse of the building and mitigating hazardous debris - primarily glass. The main threat is from explosive devices, ranging in size from small devices that could be placed in a backpack to large truck bombs.

Two basic strategies are used. Ensuring that potential explosives are a safe standoff distance from the facility is the preferred strategy; this is accomplished by limiting vehicle access close to the building, controlling access, and using unobstructed landscaping schemes to make detection of potential explosives possible. The second strategy is to make the building as safe as possible if attacked. Structural upgrades to prevent progressive collapse are required for all buildings with three or more stories, minimum glazing standards to prevent injury are required for all buildings, and other measures may be needed depending on the standoff distance. The standards attempt to provide an appropriate level of protection at a reasonable cost.

ATFP requirements do not supersede Section 106 Historic Preservation requirements, but they also must be incorporated into major renovations of historic buildings (Section 1-10). Historic buildings must comply with BOTH ATFP and historic preservation requirements. Although DOD does have a waiver process for ATFP requirements, waivers are rarely granted, and the waivers must be requested early in the planning phase of the project. Typically window replacement with blast resistant glass, structural upgrades, landscaping, and relocation of existing vehicular traffic patterns provide the greatest challenges with existing historic buildings. As with all building endeavors with historic resources, early planning with preservation professionals, the SHPO, clients, and the base ATFP subject matter expert are critical to the success of the project.

Consider the following issues when designing security against terrorism for a historic property refer also to WBDG Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats.

• Site Planning: The goal for site planning is to maximize standoff distance or provide protection against potential large explosive devices and to provide clear zones adjacent to the building to facilitate observation of small explosive devices. Care must be taken to avoid significant alteration to historic landscaping. Impact-engineered site furniture and appropriately designed bollards can enhance both site amenity and security. (See the GSA Site Security Design Guide for comprehensive information on an integrated approach to site security design into public space.)

• Architecture
  • Restoration of historic windows is preferable. Replacement of historic windows can frequently be avoided with the addition of blast-resistant interior storm windows and/or blast curtains to prevent glass fragmentation hazards (refer also to WBDG Glazing Hazard Mitigation and Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats). See also Sustainable Historic Preservation.
  • Doors are generally required to open outward, and blast resistant doors may be required in some situations. Replacement of historic doors can often be avoided by closing an entrance or providing an additional set of doors to provide the required protection.
  • Materials and products exist that resemble historic materials but may offer more security.
  • Internal layout of spaces is important to provide entry control and protection of critical resources. If new features are required, they should comply with code and be compatible with the original design.
  • Some historic architectural elements, including ceiling elements, light fixtures and equipment, should be secured or reinforced to prevent injury and loss in security or seismic events.

• Structural: Prevention of progressive collapse is required for buildings of three stories or more. Building modifications need to consider the threat level, structural analysis, and review of design alternatives as they relate to preservation issues. Furring in of exterior walls should be avoided where it impacts historic finishes or changes the volume and proportions of significant spaces. For guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

• Electrical: Electrical issues relate to provision of power and emergency lighting as well as means of mass notification. Installing emergency generators for existing historic fixtures can eliminate the need for intrusive secondary lighting systems. Notification devices and detection equipment should be integrated to avoid damage or disruption of historic finishes. For guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

• Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC): HVAC systems must be installed and protected to prevent the entry of external contaminants. They also should allow for the isolation of contaminants and the exhaust of smoke in support of building evacuation. In general, make every effort to minimize impact on the historic fabric of the building. For guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

Example: Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility and Metro Entrance Facility Renovation Program

Pentagon Reservation with Metro entrance facility Arlington, VA. Photo Credit: U.S. Department of Defense (DoD)

Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility (RDF)

Remote delivery facility with landscaped parade ground

The RDF is a 250,000 square foot shipping and receiving facility adjoining the Pentagon. The RDF significantly improved the physical security of the Pentagon by providing a secure consolidated location to receive and screen thousands of items shipped to the building each day. A landscaped roof provides new green space with indigenous vegetation and water reuse in what was once an asphalt parking lot. The roof landscaping also reduces storm water volume on the site and heat loading of the facility. The RDF is registered as a pilot project with the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program. The facility includes a building control system for energy efficiency and indoor air quality.

The Pentagon was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992. This landmark designation protects five contributing architectural features of the Pentagon, including the Mall Terrace façade. By conforming the one-story receiving facility to the shape of the existing site, bordered by two highways, it actually improved site lines to the Pentagon's historic Mall Terrace. The façade of the RDF replicates the look and feel of the original Indiana limestone used on the exterior of the Pentagon in the 1940s.

Pentagon Metro Entrance Facility (MEF)

The MEF was a congressionally mandated security project to relocate the Pentagon bus station further from the building and to create a secure screening facility for visitors entering the Pentagon. Balancing the security needs of the Department of Defense while creating a welcoming and historically sensitive "front door" to the Pentagon is a difficult balancing act made possible with sustainable solutions. The design of the MEF uses landscaped dirt berms to mitigate the potential effects of a blast. Self-cleaning Teflon-coated fiberglass canopies protect pedestrians from foul weather and will not fragment in the event of an explosion (as is the case with glass or other less flexible materials).

Pentagon Renovation (PENREN) Goals for Sustainable Construction

• Use resources efficiently
• Minimize raw material resource consumption, including energy, water, land and materials, both during the construction as well as throughout the life of the facility.
• Reuse resources
• Use renewable energy sources
• Create a healthy working environment
• Build facilities of long-term value
• Protect and/or restore natural environment

The MEF was the first Department of Defense facility to receive Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. The following features design and construction features contribute to the LEED Certification:

• At least 50% of waste was diverted from landfill
• Electric vehicle outlets installed
• Vegetation covers half the open space restoring life back to the site
• High reflectance Energy Star roofing installed
• 20% savings in energy consumption
• Over 50% of the building materials were assembled within 500 miles
• Over 50% of the materials contain recycled content
• 21% of wood-based materials were FSC certified
• Permanent CO₂ monitoring systems installed
• Registered as a LEED project

The National Capital Planning Commission and Commission of Fine Arts cited the MEF as an exemplary project. Like the RDF, the façade of the MEF matches the existing exterior of the Pentagon to complement the appearance of the historic building. The MEF was subject to review by the Virginia State Historic Preservation Officer and other governmental review commissions since the Pentagon is a listed National Historic Landmark. PENREN adhered to the Secretary of Interior's Standards throughout the design and construction of the project.

Metro entrance facility (fiberglass canopy) with Pentagon security entrance and visitor screening center (terrazzo structure adjacent to Pentagon building)

PENREN chose finish materials for the security entrance and visitor center that enhance sustainability of the facility (e.g. terrazzo, certified wood, recycled content ceiling panels). Designers incorporated skylights to bring natural light into the facility thereby reducing the use of artificial lighting. The skylights allow visitors and personnel to see the monumental façade of the Pentagon (restored during the project) when ascending the escalators from the security area into the Pentagon proper.

LEED points earned on the RDF and MEF projects combine to certify the entire Pentagon Reservation under the U.S. Green Building Council's program, LEED for Existing Buildings.

Emerging Issues

A kit of parts showing how landscape furniture can be engineered and parts combined to meet vehicle barrier requirements with integrally-design site amenities. Photo Credit: Westlake Reed Leskowsky/U.S. General Services Administration

Rehabilitation Codes

Although fire safety improvements—particularly early warning detection and quick response suppression—help to reduce the risk of devastating historic building losses, their potential to compromise historic fabric often leads to resistance against egress code compliance. Fortunately, two important trends are converging to support flexible approaches to egress code compliance: 1) alternative codes for historic and non-historic existing buildings and 2) technological advances that compensate for fire safety deficiencies and offer less intrusive solutions for prescriptive code compliance.

The general intent of life safety codes is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants, in the event of a fire, to a safe area. The code addresses construction features such as the a) width, length, and fire resistance of exit paths and b) ability of construction materials to contain fire and prevent its spread; fire protection features such as smoke detection devices, alarms, and fire suppression systems; occupancy and operational features such as emergency evacuation planning; and fire precautions during construction.

Increasing recognition that compliance with prescriptive codes written principally to guide new construction, onerous enough to discourage investment in older urban areas, has led states such as California (California Historical Building Code [2016] ), New Jersey (New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code [1999]) and Maryland (Maryland Building Rehabilitation Code) to adopt Smart Codes, or Rehabilitation codes that provide flexibility to achieve life safety goals without wholesale building reconfiguration.

In 2000 the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development released an updated and expanded edition of Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies  with the expressed goal of promoting the preservation and reuse of America's older housing and building stock. This guide provides fire ratings for a wide variety of materials and assemblies found in buildings from the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries, as well as methods for calculating the fire resistance of general classes of archaic materials and assemblies for which no documentation is available. The 2000 edition also includes an array of details developed by English Heritage for upgrading the fire resistance of wood panel doors. The document has found widespread acceptance among code officials and has been incorporated into numerous state and local building codes, model code publications, and (U.S.) National Fire Protection Association standards.

In addition, the National Fire Protection Association's NFPA 914 Code for Fire Protection in Historic Structures provides alternatives, including performance-based approaches and operational solutions, for meeting the intent of the NFPA Life Safety Code within the framework of the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. The intent of NFPA 914 is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants while minimizing the impact of fire and fire protection on the structure, contents, and architectural features that give a building its historic character.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Life Safety

• Fire Prevention and Building Code Compliance for Historic Buildings: A Field Guide prepared by the University of Vermont Graduate Program in Historic Prevention in cooperation with the Vermont Division for Historic Preservation and the Vermont Department of Labor and Industry, December 1997.
• Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies, U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, 2000 .
• International Code Council
  • International Building Code (IBC), Chapter 10
  • International Existing Building Code (IEBC), Historic Buildings, Chapter 12
• Massachusetts Building Code Section 780 CMR 3409.0—Historic Building exceptions 
• New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code, adopted 1998 & revised 2000. A groundbreaking performance code written for rehabilitation projects and widely recognized as a model by code promulgation bodies.
• NFPA 914—Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures, National Fire Protection Association
• Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001 .

Seismic Upgrades

• California Historical Building Code (2016) 
• FEMA 356—Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings , ASCE/FEMA.

Security and Anti-terrorism

• Department of Defense
  • UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings
• General Services Administration (GSA)
  • PBS-P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, Chapter 7.
  • First Impressions Program Guide
  • Lobby Security in Historic Buildings
  • The Site Security Design Guide (06-2007)
• Department of State
  • Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998. (For Official Use Only)
  • The National Capital Urban Design and Security Plan, National Capital Planning Commission, October, 2002 

Additional Resources

Publications

• Building Security: Handbook for Architectural Planning and Design edited by Barbara Nadel. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.
• Fire Safe Building Rehabilitation by John Watts and Marilyn Kaplan. National Fire Protection Association, 2003.
• Fire Safety in Historic Buildings by Jack Watts. National Trust for Historic Preservation, June 2008.
• Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, Technical Perservation Guide 3-1, April 2001 .
• Modifying Historic Interior Railings to Meet Building Code ITS #46
• Perimeter Security for Historic Buildings by the U.S. General Services Administration 
• Saving Windows, Saving Money: Evaluating the Energy Performance of Window Retrofit and Replacement, by the National Trust for Historic Preservation Green Lab 
• The Seismic Rehabilitation of Historic Buildings, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Parks Service, Preservation Brief No. 41, 1997 .
• Strategic Fire Protection in Historic Buildings by Richard Forrest. From Building Conservation Website. 1997.

Overview

Programming should begin with a clear definition of the activities to be performed and the people who will use the space and surroundings. Accounting for functional and psychological needs is a primary purpose of the planning process that defines an owner's functional and physical requirements for each spatial element in a building or facility. This process seeks to:

• state the problem;
• establish goals;
• collect and analyze facts;
• establish functional relationships;
• uncover and test concepts;
• define space requirements for all spaces;
• and finally state the problem to direct a course of action.

Primary Systems diagram of the Wieden + Kennedy Ad Agency building—Portland, OR Photo Credit: Allied Works Architecture

Adequate programming performed in the project planning phase will clearly delineate in-use requirements and relationships of occupant activities and spaces required for all supporting building systems and equipment. Effective programming will include all pertinent stakeholders to identify that all "Whole Building" functions and needs have been identified. Conducting programming and design charrettes with these stakeholders is an effective means of enhancing integrated functionality and mutual agreement on a design approach.

See WBDG Architectural Programming for a more detailed explanation of how architectural programming helps the project team achieve a well-functioning high-performance building.

A truly functional building will require a thorough analysis of the parts of the design problem and the application of creative synthesis in a solution that integrates the parts in a coherent and optimal operating manner. 'Whole Building' design is characterized by a design solution that functions well from an occupant activity and building systems point of view.

There are several key steps in the development of project requirements that fully describe the design problem. They are:

• Understand how the work processes support the mission and purpose of a facility;
• Define spatial requirements for occupant activities and equipment in a Space Program;
• Understand functional relationships among the programmed spaces;
• Anticipate installation, Operations & Maintenance (O&M) practices, spatial change, and replacement of building equipment;
• Accommodate information technology (IT), communication, and other building systems equipment; and
• Consider serviceability (clearance) requirements.

Recommendations

Understand How the Functional Needs Support the Mission and Purpose of a Facility

• Set owner's design objectives in the early planning stage.
• Determine facility use, occupancy, and activities to be housed.
• Consider the functional needs in the context of all the other design objectives to ensure a balanced and integrated design.
• Balance the owner's and users' needs and goals for space, quality, budget, and time.
• Reference building type guidelines. See also WBDG Building Types.
• Look beyond the facility to understand the role the site plays in meeting the functional needs in support of the mission and purpose of a facility.

West-facing façade of Federal Center South Building 1202, headquarters of the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). The "oxbow" design solution provides an ideal workplace environment for the USACE, emblematic of their mission of "Building Strong." The building's form-reflecting the natural oxbows past and present in the adjacent Duwamish Waterway-is functional and infinitely flexible to accommodate the USACE's constantly changing team-based work. Photo Credit: Benjamin Benschneider

Define Spatial Requirements for Occupant Activities and Equipment

• Consult all pertinent stakeholders for their requirements.
• Consult planning guides and specialists on programmed activities equipment.
• Document all regulatory requirements, such as building codes, accessibility laws, anti-terrorism/force protection (ATFP), etc.
• Explore the possible necessity of making spaces flexible to accommodate changes in business practices, work activities, and technologies.
• Consider building operations and maintenance activities in the defining of space requirements.
• Look beyond the building to understand the role the site/landscape plays in defining spatial requirements for occupant activities and equipment.

Understand Functional Relationships Between Program Spaces

• Engage user groups in discussions to brainstorm functional relationship solutions.
• Examine patterns of activity in facility programs and consider how those patterns create spatial relationships.
• Account for physical security requirements in the layout of space planning.
• Consider impacts of building systems and engineering needs on spatial relationships in indoor and outdoor occupied and unoccupied spaces.
• Leverage opportunities to consider quality environmental elements such as: natural light, spatial volume, views, connection to the landscape and nature, texture, and materials. See also WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.
• Again, look beyond the facility to understand the role the site/landscape plays in the functional relationship between spaces and even the larger community.

Vontz Center for Molecular Studies—Cincinnati, Ohio. This 150,000 gsf., $35 million interdisciplinary research center is designed to accommodate neuroscience and cancer research. It includes core science research labs, offices, support areas, and seminar rooms with fully accessible mechanical, electrical, and support spaces between the main laboratory floors. Adequate programming is necessary to the design of such a complex building. Photo Credit: BHDP Architecture

During Schematic Design Anticipate Installation, Operation, Spatial Change, Reuse, and Replacement of Building and Equipment

• Incorporate infrastructure system needs (structural, electrical, plumbing, and mechanical systems) as integral parts of early design concepts.
• Account for structural loads (dead and live) of building systems and equipment.
• Ensure that all building system equipment and furniture, fixtures, and building equipment (FF&E) can actually be installed, operated, and replaced.
• Consult facility O&M personnel in the programming and early design stage.
• Plan infrastructure for flexible spatial modifications or "churn" and repurposing of the building in the future.

Accommodate Information Technology (IT), Communication, and Other Building Systems Equipment

• Determine the owner's goals and needs for spatial and mechanical support of the organization's IT program.
• Incorporate IT system needs as an integral part of the design concept.
• Design for configuration flexibility within workspaces that promotes occupant productivity. See also WBDG Accessible—Beyond Accessibility to Universal Design.
• Accommodate network support and servicing requirements in the design of spaces.

Consider Serviceability (Clearance) Requirements

• Design for vehicular clearances in the site design (e.g., drives, gates, ramps, parking).
• Design for vehicular clearances in building design (e.g., doors, docks, obstructions).
• Design for proper equipment access for maintenance and removal and replacement of equipment and/or major components, such as filters, boiler tubes or piping.
• Design for equipment and system life cycle.
• Design for maintainability (including housing of maintenance equipment).
• Consult facility O&M personnel in the design process.

Related Issues

• Computer-based space programming applications
• Appropriate accommodation for the changing nature of work (flexibility and productivity)
• Virtual workplaces and increased use of "Hoteling" for work space
• Building Information Modeling (BIM) (defining object functionality for facility life cycle)
• Adaptability for possible change of building needs and function over time.
• With today's emphasis on sustainability and green building design, maintain a balanced perspective with the other key design objectives.

Relevant Codes and Standards

• Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Technical Report No. 145, Appendix A, Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities.
• International Code Council
  • International Building Code
  • International Energy Conservation Code
  • International Green Construction Code

Additional Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Accessible, Cost-Effective, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable

Publications

• ADA/ABA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities
• Handbook for Planning and Conducting Charrettes for High Performance Projects, 2nd Edition by National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), July 2012.
• Interior Graphic Standards, 2nd Edition by Corky Binggeli, Patricia Greichen, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2010.
• Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer, 5th Edition by W.M. Peña and S.A. Parshall. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012.
• Professional Practice in Facility Programming by Wolfgang Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold Co., 1992.
• Programming for Design: From Theory to Practice by Edith Cherry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.
• Time-Saver Standards for Building Types, 4th Edition by Joseph DiChiara and Michael J. Crosbie. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2001.

Associations

• American Council of Engineering Companies (ACEC)
• The American Institute of Architects (AIA)
• American Planning Association (APA)
• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
• American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)
• American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
• American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)
• American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
• International Council for Research and Innovation in Building and Construction (CIB)
• International Interior Design Association (IIDA)
• National Charrette Institute (NCI)
• National Research Council Canada, Construction Division
• National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)
• SAVE International
• Union of International Architects (UIA)

Others

• Federal Facility Criteria documents and publications (for Building-Type Design Guides)
• Compendium of Lessons Learned CD, Volume I by General Services Administration. July 2001. Contact Office of the Chief Architect, GSA Public Buildings Service.

Introduction

A. Definition of Low Impact Development (LID)

Low Impact Development (LID) is a sustainable storm water management strategy that is gaining rapid acceptance in the United States to meet regulatory compliance and resource protection goals and is practiced extensively in Europe. The increased use of LID is in response to burgeoning infrastructural costs of new development and redevelopment projects, more rigorous environmental regulations, concerns about the urban heat island effect, and the impacts of natural resources due to growth and development. The frequency of droughts and concern about water quality issues have also prompted interest in the treatment and the reuse of storm water as a viable resource and has resulted in a shift in the way planners, developers, architects, engineers, and the public approach the control of storm water and conservation of rainwater. Many municipalities across the nation have embraced LID due to its holistic approach to site design and overall sustainable design. There are countless examples of jurisdictions that have proactively revised their development policies, codes, growth and management plans and implemented LID technologies to manage storm water at its source and collect rainwater for secondary use.

The LID strategy controls water at the source—both rainfall and storm water runoff—which is known as 'source-control' technology. It is a decentralized system that distributes storm water across a project site in order to replenish groundwater supplies rather than sending it into a system of storm drain pipes and channelized networks that control water downstream in a large storm water management facility. The LID approach promotes the use of various devices that filter water and infiltrate water into the ground. It promotes the use of roofs of buildings, parking lots, and other horizontal surfaces to convey water to either distribute it into the ground or collect it for reuse.

The LID approach differs from conventional conveyance systems as it promotes the highest and best use of the intrinsic land form and built structure(s) to both distribute storm water and collect rainwater. The uniqueness of LID is the interaction and function of water on a site. It capitalizes on the integration of infrastructure, architecture, and landscape in order to create a balanced, hydrologically functional and sustainable site. The LID approach handles water like the valuable and viable resource that it is, for the water that reaches a project site is a valuable commodity and can be used in innumerable ways.

LID encompasses the use of structural devices (engineered systems) and non-structural devices (vegetated, natural systems). It uses a combination of these technologies, or a "suite of technologies," to maintain or restore the natural hydrologic functions on a site with the goal of reducing the impact of development. The goal is to structure the development of a site so that the pre-development conditions are not altered excessively. Of particular concern are the rate of storm water runoff, the pollutants in the water, and recharge of water into the ground. By reducing water pollution and increasing groundwater recharge, LID helps to improve the quality of receiving surface waters and to stabilize the flow rates of nearby streams. The integrated LID devices that are available allow the designer to restructure the built environment to control storm water and capture rainwater in order to minimize the impact of development. The integration of LID devices permits the developer and designer to use an array of storm water management devices that are both cost-effective and environmentally sound. The LID strategy is not a static design approach, however, is very dynamic and adaptable. LID has been proven to reduce development and infrastructure costs, minimize operations and maintenance costs, and improve the marketability of projects.

Figure 1: Key Elements of LID

B. Background of LID

LID was pioneered in the 1990's by the Prince George's County, Maryland Department of Environmental Resources. The LID effort in Prince George's County began with the development and use of bioretention cells. The County's initial experience with bioretention led to a full-scale effort to incorporate LID into the County's resource protection program. In 1998, the County produced the first municipal LID manual. This was later expanded into a nationally distributed LID manual that was published in 2000. A feasibility study was prepared by the LID Center in 2002 that provided guidance on how LID could be used to retrofit urban areas. Since then the LID Center, other water research organizations, and universities have been developing tools, strategies, and techniques to incorporate LID into research and regulatory programs.

C. The Benefits of LID

The primary benefits of LID are:

1. To prevent degradation of water quality and natural resources,
2. To manage storm water more efficiently and cost effectively,
3. To protect groundwater and drinking water supplies, and
4. To help communities grow more attractively.

D. Models of Ingenuity

There still are many barriers to using LID technologies, primarily because of unfamiliarity with the technologies, and obstacles in the administrative and permitting process. However, many models already exist that illustrate the ingenuity of municipalities across the country to incorporate sustainable practices into their development codes and policies to protect their natural resources and manage storm water. Many communities have streamlined processes and revised their regulations and development codes to promote LID storm water management applications.

One popular practice among planning departments is extending provisional variances or waivers of standards to developers, engineers, and architects for projects that demonstrate the use of LID technologies. Many areas of the country that are progressive with respect to alternative storm water management applications are beginning to adapt their local codes and zoning laws as a result of successful pilot programs. Demonstration projects have repeatedly stimulated interest in LID practices and have prompted the passage of ordinances, revisions to development policies and codes, amendments to storm water management guidelines, and often influenced modifications to growth and management goals or Comprehensive Land Use Management Plans. Municipalities have used the pilot projects to:

• Demonstrate sustainable materials and products,
• Monitor storm water runoff,
• Measure the impact to adjacent waterways,
• Determine cost benefits,
• Streamline permitting and administrative approval processes, and
• Evaluate public involvement and acceptance.

E. The Challenge of LID

LID is in the early stages of adoption in the United States and a challenge exists to assist municipalities in adapting these approaches and techniques. Although the technologies are relatively new to planners in this country and innovative in their response, they have been successfully used in Europe and Asia for many years. The technologies are not experimental; rather they are proven and tested. The challenge is to implement these technologies in inventive configurations. However, the pursuit of innovative technologies is not a foreign concept to developers, engineers, and architects that advocate and promote green building and sustainable design.

F. Case Studies and Pilot Projects

There are many exemplary programs that have used a broad range of planning methods and systematic approaches to develop policies, practices, and procedures to meet local water quality regulations and environmental challenges. Municipalities such as Portland, Oregon have incorporated LID techniques into their urban resource protection programs. Local governments throughout the Puget Sound (Washington State) have revised ordinances, or passed new ordinances, to allow for and encourage LID practices. Several successful pilot projects have been constructed locally and nationally and have demonstrated the effectiveness of managing runoff, reducing construction and maintenance costs, and enhancing communities. As a result, they have created significant interest in LID. Refer to Section IV for more detailed descriptions on case studies and pilot projects.

Description

A. LID Site Design Goals

The goal of LID site design is to minimize the generation of storm water runoff and to treat pollutant loads where they are generated. This is accomplished by directing storm water towards small-scale systems that are dispersed throughout the site with the purpose of managing water in an evenly distributed manner. These distributed systems allow for downsizing or elimination of storm water ponds, curbs, and gutters, thus saving on infrastructure and storm conveyance costs. Eliminating (or reducing the size of) ponds makes available additional land for open space, lots, or supplementary building footprint.

Because LID embraces a variety of useful techniques for controlling runoff, designs can be customized according to local management requirements and site constraints. Designers and developers can select the LID technologies that are appropriate to a site's topographic and climatic conditions and are appropriate to meet storm water control requirements. New projects, redevelopment projects, and capital improvement projects are all candidates for implementation of LID.

B. LID Site Design Strategies

Site design strategies for every design project address the arrangement of buildings, roads, parking areas, site features, and storm water management plans. LID builds on conventional design strategies by exploiting every surface in the infrastructure—natural and hardscape—to perform a beneficial hydrologic function. The surfaces are used to retain, detain, store, change the timing of, or filter runoff in a number of different configurations and combinations. Some of the more prevalent site design techniques include:

• Reduce imperviousness by using permeable paving or landscaping to break up expanses of impervious surfaces.

• Direct runoff into or across vegetated areas to help filter runoff and encourage groundwater recharge.

• Preserve, or design into the infrastructure, naturally vegetated areas that are in close proximity to parking areas, buildings, and other impervious expanses in order to slow runoff, filter out pollutants, and facilitate infiltration.

• Reduce street widths.

• Remove curbs and gutters from streets, parking areas, and parking islands to allow storm water sheet flow into vegetated areas.

• Use devices such as bioretention cells, vegetated swales, infiltration trenches, and dry wells to increase storage volume and facilitate infiltration.

• Grade to encourage sheet flow and lengthen flow paths to increase the runoff travel time in order to modify the peak flow rate.

• Disconnect impervious areas from the storm drain network and maintain natural drainage divides to keep flow paths dispersed.

• Disconnect roof downspouts and direct storm water into vegetated areas or into water collection devices.

• Install cisterns or sub-surface retention facilities to capture rainwater for use in irrigation and non-potable uses.

• Install vegetated roofs or garden roofs.

• Use native plants (or adaptable species) to establish an adaptable and low maintenance landscape that requires less irrigation and are appropriate for the climatic conditions.

• Use naturally occurring bio-chemical processes in plants located in tree box filters, swales, planter boxes.

• Divert water away and disconnect from the storm drain or CSO using correctional drainage techniques.

C. LID Site Planning Process

This following is a model LID design strategy. It is important to have a clear idea of the sustainability goals in order to develop an effective LID storm water management program. Once strategies and LID technologies are identified, a master plan can be prepared.

Figure 2: LID Design Development and Planning Process

A step-by-step process for LID design development is described below:

Step 1: Define Project Objectives and Goals

1. Identify the LID objectives for the entire project.

2. Determine the goals and feasibility for water quality, water quantity, peak runoff control, and on-site use of storm water.

3. Determine project character/aesthetic. Identify the baseline principles from which LID design decisions will be made by defining the LID technologies that support the concept and visual aesthetic. Determine if it is a goal to irrigate open space with captured rainwater, or whether rain barrels are a suitable aesthetic for front or back yards. Determine if it is important to offer residential homeowners the ability to use rain barrels for private irrigation needs, or use subsurface detention facilities for carwashes. Consider whether green roofs or roof gardens are consistent with the envisioned architectural design.

4. Prioritize and rank basic objectives.

Step 2: Analysis and Site Evaluation

A site evaluation will facilitate LID design development by providing infrastructural, contextual, cultural, and community clues that will assist in the development of a LID program.

1. Conduct a detailed investigation of the site through collected materials such as drainage maps, utilities information, soils maps, land use plans, and aerial photographs.

2. Perform an on-site evaluation highlighting opportunities and constraints, such as pollutant hot spots, potential disconnects from Combined Sewer Overflows (CSOs), slopes, critical drainage areas, sunlight, shade, wind, habitat, potential green corridors, circulation, power lines, and storm drains. Make note of potential LID practices and areas where water quality and quantity controls could be installed.

Step 3: Create Overlay

1. Classify the land use on the project site.

2. Review the proposed architectural plan to identify buildings and structures, open or vegetated space, parking lots, parking lot islands, side yards, vegetated strips adjacent to sidewalks, and buffer areas.

3. Create an overlay that identifies opportunities for LID devices.

Step 4: Develop LID Control Strategies

1. Develop a list of LID control strategies that potentially fulfill the objectives. Determine the appropriate number of LID controls needed. Identify specific LID technologies for the project site and determine how to integrate them, keeping in mind the optimum location, to meet their design objectives.

2. Specify LID technologies for each land use component.

Step 5: Design LID Master Plan

1. Sketch a design concept that distributes the LID devices uniformly around the project site. Keep in mind that some LID technologies can be used to capture storm water from adjacent impervious areas. Consider where public recreation areas can be provided, such as networks of open space or green corridors. Take into account using all surfaces (built, hardscape, and landscape). Keep in mind the multifunctional aspect of LID technologies (i.e., parking lot with sub-surface detention facility).

2. Develop a master plan that identifies all key control issues (water quality, water quantity, water conservation) and implementation areas. Specify specific LID technologies and any connections they have to storm water overflow units and sub-surface detention facilities.

3. Finalize the plan.

Step 6: Develop Schedule, Funding, Construction, and Implementation Plans

The development process is not a linear or static process but one that is dynamic and adaptable.

Step 7: Evaluate Success or Modify Design

Developing a storm water management program using LID principles and practices is a dynamic process. Evaluate the design to see if it meets project storm water management objectives. This will be achieved by:

1. Conducting modeling and/or calculations to determine if the master plan meets storm water control objectives. If the design does not meet the requirements, consider alternative strategies and repeat Steps 4, 5, and 6.

2. Periodically reevaluate the plan during the implementation process to determine if revisions need to be made to the storm water management program.

D. LID Technologies and Water Conservation

The following example addresses a way to determine the goals for on-site reuse of rainwater and water conservation. Determine which level of on-site reuse and water conservation is consistent with project objectives. A list of suitable LID technologies is suggested for the different water conservation levels.

1. Level One: Distribution Storm water runoff is distributed using open and vegetated areas to increase infiltration and reduce the amount of storm water that enters the storm drains. This requires minimal infrastructural modifications/additions. LID Technologies: Sheet flow to rain gardens, bioswales, bioretention cells, tree box filters, soil amendments, structural soil, native and sustainable ornamental plants

2. Level Two: Hardscape Materials and Curbs Replace hardscape materials with permeable materials. Construct sidewalks, parking bays, and internal alleys with materials, such as permeable concrete or green grids, that allow water to infiltrate. Slope roads in the directions of the parking lot islands, and construct curb-less islands to allow water to flow into the island. Minimal infrastructural alterations/additions are required. LID Technologies: Permeable paving, curb-less parking lot islands, porous concrete parking bays, and above listed technologies

3. Level Three: Recycling Rainwater and Runoff This level uses above-ground LID devices to channel and collect rainwater from roofs, and uses sub-surface facilities to treat and collect runoff from roads and sidewalks. The recycled and stored water is used for irrigation and other non-potable purposes. The devices are integral with the buildings and infrastructure. Significant infrastructural alterations/additions are required. LID Technologies: Disconnected roof drains, cisterns, sub-surface storm water retention facility (below parking lots), rooftop channels, rain barrels, and above listed technologies

LID can be thought of as a component of the larger approach to sustainable design and water conservation. LID makes use of the rainfall and storm water that reaches a site, filtering it and directing it for reuse. LID site design technologies can be incorporated into the overall LEED Water Efficiency and Innovative Wastewater Technology goals pertaining to water use, recycling grey water, and water sewage treatment.

This analysis was compiled through a grant through the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation.

Application

LID Implementation Examples

Many municipalities in the U.S. have been very proactive in using on-site source control methods to manage storm water, such as in Maplewood, Minnesota. In 1995, Birmingham Street, in Maplewood, was retrofitted with rain gardens adjacent to curb-less streets, instead of conventional curb and gutter, and became a precedent for future streetscape improvement projects in the county. The City of Olympia, Washington, has been very proactive in requiring certain sustainable storm water management practices to reduce the impact of impervious areas (e.g., narrower streets and permeable parking bays) and have adopted new codes and development guidelines. The City of Portland, Oregon, has revised zoning codes for parking lots to reduce the minimum size of parking bays and increase the required interior landscaping. Santa Monica, California, has modified its municipal code to encourage the use of sustainable practices including a number of site, landscape and water conservation technologies.

Some successful LID design and program development models include:

1. Olympia, Washington—Green Cove Basin

Key Goals

• Designate Green Cove Creek as a sensitive drainage basin.
• Adopt low impact development regulations within designated sensitive drainage basins which may include storm water standards, critical area regulations, zoning designations, and other development standards.
• Protect critical areas in designated sensitive drainage basins.
• Direct development away from sensitive areas.

Key Elements

• Increases allowable residential densities from single-family to duplex and multi-family uses.
• Limits maximum impervious surface coverage per lot.
• Reduces lot widths and setbacks.
• Increases maximum building heights.
• Changes zoning to allow multiple uses.
• Allows use of pervious materials on driveways and sidewalks.
• Requires use of pervious materials on new parking areas.
• Reduces width of local access streets to 18 feet.
• Reduce width of neighborhood collector streets to 25 feet.
• Increases width of sidewalk planters to 25 feet.
• Requires use of a rock infiltration gallery/conveyance system on roads where street slopes are less than 5 percent.
• Increases minimum tree density to 220 trees per acre (approx. 55%).

Comments

The ordinance requires the use of one technique to handle street runoff, rather than providing a suite of technologies that might be more adaptable to different situations. The ordinance does not specifically address the treatment or capture of runoff from buildings.

2. Portland, Oregon—Amendments to Zoning Code

Objective

To promote integration of storm water management facilities into parking lot layouts, to decrease the size of parking stalls and aisles, and to increase parking lot landscaping.

Key Elements

• Promotes management of parking lot runoff within parking lot landscaping.
• Reduces parking space dimensions to 16 feet x 18½ feet for 90-degree parking.
• Reduces aisle width to 20 feet.

Comments

An effort was made to permit and promote the management of parking lot runoff within interior landscaping, but to avoid creating excessive complications for retrofits of existing parking lots. The zoning code does not explicitly require that storm water runoff be managed within parking lot landscaping. The regulation of storm water management is left to the Bureau of Environmental Services. Specific requirements for parking lot runoff management are included in the city's Storm Water Management Manual.

3. Santa Monica, California

Objective

To reduce runoff volume and contamination from both existing properties and future developments.

Key Elements

• Establishes "Good Housekeeping Requirements" for existing properties, including the removal of hazardous substances from areas susceptible to runoff and restrictions on the washing down of paved areas.
• Requires all new developments and substantial remodels to submit an "Urban Runoff Mitigation Plan", and to reduce projected runoff for a project site by twenty percent. Provides a list of recommended design elements, including, but not limited to:
  • Maximize infiltration using:
    • biofilters
    • green strips
    • swales
    • permeable materials in lieu of hardscapes
  • Maximize amount of runoff directed permeable areas
  • Orient roof runoff toward permeable surfaces or structural BMPs
  • Modify grading to divert flow to permeable areas
  • Design curbs to minimize isolation of permeable or landscaped areas
  • Maximize storm water reuse
  • Use cisterns, retention structures or green rooftops to store runoff for reuse
  • Install BMPs to remove pollutants from runoff
  • Urban Runoff Mitigation Plan must include maintenance plan and applicant's signed statement accepting responsibility for all BMP maintenance.
  • Downspouts and subsurface pipes directing storm water to the curb must be fitted with a French drain system of perforated pipe and gravel.

Comments

Substantial differences exist between the ordinance as adopted in 1992 and the most recent revision (2000). Both versions are included for the purpose of comparison. At some point, it may be instructive to research the reasons for changes in language and specific requirements.

4. King County, Washington-LID / Built Green™ Demonstration Projects

Objective

To create three safe, healthy, and diverse communities that are sustainable and affordable, and to study the efficiency of the development review process as it affects project affordability.

Key Goals

The three (3) pilot projects will:

• Demonstrate environmentally-friendly storm water management techniques (low impact development) that use landscaping and small-scale hydrologic devices to capture, filter, and infiltrate storm water runoff.
• Demonstrate ecologically sound approach to managing the built environment using Built Green™ construction principles.
• Feature recycled materials, energy efficiency, and natural habitat protection.

The three projects are:

1. Hope VI Park Lake Homes in White Center: An urban infill mixed-use redevelopment site of 900 units: new single family and multi-family housing units; developed by King County Housing Authority
2. Shamrock in Renton: An urban single family residential project of 100 single family housing units developed by Camwest, a private developer
3. Sunflower Development on Vashon Island: A housing project of 14 single family homes

Key Elements

The modifications and waivers to standard development regulations that may be modified for the low impact development and Built Green™ demonstration projects may include:

• Zoning
• Density and dimensions
• Design requirements
• King County road standards
• Parking and circulation
• Landscaping and water use
• Drainage review requirements
• Environmentally sensitive areas
• Signs

5. Maplewood, Minnesota

Objective

Adopted LID storm water management techniques as an alternative to conventional curb and gutter infrastructure in a 1950s residential community slated for a street improvement project.

Key Goals

• Retrofit two blocks of existing streets and front yard municipal storm water easements with rain gardens that infiltrate storm water.
• Reduce capital costs for municipal infrastructure by avoiding curb and gutter installation.
• Build an ecologically friendly landscape that supports biodiversity.
• Create a culturally sustainable landscape through community involvement.
• Enhance the aesthetic of the neighborhood.

Key Elements

The landscape retrofits include:

• Grassed swales in storm water easements.
• Rain gardens in front yards of volunteer residents. Residents selected from seven types of garden designs that use native plants, such as "easy shrub," "butterfly and friends," or "Minnesota prairie garden". The city provided the landscape design and all of the plants required for their garden.
• French drains installed at key locations to increase infiltration capacity.
• The front yard gardens create a landscape corridor up and down the street.
• An abandoned lot was used as a storm water retention area and has become a community nature garden.
• The program is supported by community education and outreach programs and promotes public involvement.
• Questionnaires address homeowners' uncertainties about design, the use of the storm water easement in their front yard, maintenance, and care.
• Annual community "planting days" are scheduled where city personnel and residents demonstrate how to plant and maintain rain gardens.

This analysis was compiled through a grant through the Summit Fund of Washington.

Low Impact Development Technologies

Refer to the Low Impact Development Technologies Resource Page for more detailed descriptions about specific LID technologies, cost comparisons, benefits, and their use.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Regulatory Compliance

• Chesapeake Bay Agreement 2000
• Clean Water Act
  • Section 303. Total Maximum Daily Loads
  • Section 311. Spill Prevention, Control and Countermeasure Requirements
  • Section 319. State Non-Point Source Management Program
  • Section 401. Certification and Wetlands
  • Section 402. National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Program
  • Section 404. Regulation of Dredged or Fill Material
• Safe Drinking Water Act Wellhead Protection Program
• Coastal Zone Management Act
• Energy Policy Act of 1992
• Estuaries and Clean Waters Act of 2000
• National Environmental Policy Act of 1969
• Sikes Act

Federal Directives

• Executive Order 13693, "Planning for Federal Sustainability in the Next Decade"

Additional Resources

Organizations

• Center for Watershed Protection
• Chesapeake Stormwater Network
• Low Impact Development Center, Inc.
• Puget Sound Partnership
• Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC)
• U.S. Green Buildings Council (USGBC)

Publications

• Natural Approaches to Stormwater Management, Puget Sound Action Team, March 2003 
• The Practice of Low Impact Development, for the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development by NAHB Research Center, Inc., July 2003 
• Reducing Combined Sewer Overflows—Toward Clean Water in Washington, D.C., School of Public Affairs, Univ. of Maryland, May 2002.
• Out of the Gutter—Reducing Polluted Runoff in the District of Columbia, Natural Resouces Defense Council, July 2002 

Design and Analysis Tools

• ASLA Sustainable Landscapes
• Low Impact Development Urban Design Tools
• Montgomery County Rainscapes Program
• Prince Georges County—Low Impact Development Design Strategies 
• Sustainable Sites Initiative

Training

• American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Training
• Center for Watershed Protection
• Low Impact Development Center Conferences

Research

• Center for Watershed Protection

Other

• Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
  • Low Impact Development
  • Facility Storm Water Management
  • Storm Water Management at the EPA Headquarters
• Chesapeake Ecology Center Rainscaping

Introduction

The acoustical environment of a workspace is often given little or no attention during project planning and design. The functionality and aesthetics of the workspace are usually the primary focus of the designer. Sometimes overlooked, are the factors contributing to the productivity of employees occupying the workspace. Providing a comfortable environment for employees contributes significantly to their optimum performance and reduced absenteeism. Workspace comfort is a combination of factors that includes daylighting and electric lighting, indoor environmental quality, temperature, and acoustics. The assault on ears in the workplace can come from traffic noise outside, mechanical equipment in adjacent spaces, and copiers, phones, and voices within the workspace.

Description

The focus of this resource page is primarily on acoustic comfort in offices, classrooms, and conference rooms, though the concepts may apply to other space types, as well. For other occupancies see the references at the end of this page.

Besides the design team's focusing on the project's functionality and aesthetics, building acoustics is so often given low priority because it competes for limited project dollars with a number of other project goals, including: sustainable design/development, physical security/anti-terrorism, information technology/telecommunications, and building automation and controls. What is the solution to incorporating acoustics into the project development process? Employ an integrated design approach.

Though there are some differences in the acoustical requirements of offices, classrooms, and conference rooms, several common noise problems affect these occupancies:

• Too much noise outside the building entering the space
• Too much noise from adjacent spaces, and
• Lack of sound control within the space itself.

Noise in these occupancies is typically not at a high enough level to be harmful to human hearing. Rather, the noise is distracting from concentration on work or study and provides less than ideal working and learning environments.

For each of the covered workplace occupancies, this paper will:

• address the sources of acoustical problems
• offer design guidance to control the acoustical problems
• identify accepted acoustical criteria, and
• describe the value of acoustic comfort to the employee.

Site Selection

A satisfactory indoor acoustical environment actually starts by knowing what is going on outdoors. Follow these guidelines when selecting a site for an office building or educational facility:

• Avoid sites in high noise areas—airfields, highways, factories, and railways.
• Ensure compatibility with existing facilities—do not site a school in an industrial area, for example.

Determine what else is planned for the site in the future. Your building may be the first one built, but if future buildings are acoustically incompatible with yours, significant remediation measures may be necessary to return the interior sound environment to an acceptable level.

When the site is predetermined and is too noisy for an office building or educational facility:

• incorporate appropriate sound control measures
• avoid through-the-wall, package terminal air conditioners (PTAC)
• orient quiet spaces away from outside noise sources.

To protect the spaces in a building from noise from a nearby highway or railway, lay out the building so that restrooms, mechanical and electrical equipment rooms, and other less noise-sensitive spaces are adjacent to the roadway. When designing a campus near high noise activity, locate gymnasiums and other less noise-sensitive facilities closer to the noise source and place buildings needing quiet surroundings in the shadow of those facilities.

As always, while siting for noise control, incorporate sustainable site planning into the decision-making process.

It is more likely for a project to remain within budget if opportunities are sought to apply a single design approach to achieve multiple design objectives.

For example, an earth berm with low-growth, drought-tolerant plants can act as a noise barrier from highway traffic, meet sustainable development principles, and help meet security requirements for standoff distance from buildings.

Glazing

Windows and glazing are key elements of the building envelope. These elements must allow daylight to enter the space, reject heat and glare, control sound and, for some projects, be blast resistant. The extent of windows and glazing, and their size and location are decisions that must be made in the project concept phase to ensure proper windows and glazing are chosen. Keep in mind that multiple glazing types are likely for many projects based on the building orientation, proximity of intrusive noise sources, and vulnerability assessments and risk analysis.

A. Open Office Environments and Teaming Spaces

Teaming Spaces are flexible areas designed to foster collaboration and innovation. Open office environments provide greater flexibility than enclosed offices by using easily relocatable low-height, moveable partitions or systems furniture to form individual workspaces, rather than employing full-height permanent partitions. The initial cost for teaming spaces and open office environments may be significantly less than that for enclosed offices and reconfiguration can be done rapidly at minimal cost. These factors have led to an increased use of teaming spaces and open office environments in both the federal and private sectors. Acoustical problems have surfaced in teaming spaces and open office environments causing employee distraction, stress, and interference with team interaction, and normal work routines. How serious is the problem of poor workplace acoustics? The Center for the Built Environment (CBE) at U.C., Berkeley conducted post-occupancy Evaluations (POE) of many buildings over the years with respondents in a variety of office configurations. A majority of occupants in these environments think poor acoustics interfere with their ability to do their work.

Occupant Satisfaction 2013 Credit: The Center for the Built Environment (CBE) at U.C., Berkeley

Though occupants of green buildings generally show a higher level of satisfaction with the built environment than do occupants of standard buildings, these buildings fall short in some key areas. Common complaints included: acoustics (too noisy, not enough privacy), thermal comfort (limited temperature control), and daylighting (too much glare and light spill).

Contributors to unacceptable noise in the workspace include indiscriminate use of speakerphones, low partition heights, ringing phones, noisy copy machines, and office chatter.

Solutions:

• Locate teaming spaces and open office environments away from reception areas and other high traffic areas not associated with these spaces.
• Specify acoustical ceilings with a noise reduction coefficient (NRC) of 0.75.
• Choose systems furniture with a 60 inch minimum height and have sound absorbing surfaces on both sides.
• Avoid placing lighting fixtures directly over partitions—they reflect sound to adjacent work areas.
• Locate printers/copiers in separate rooms away from offices and provide separate ventilation to minimize ozone in the workspace.

The ideal office environment should give workers individual control of temperature, lighting, and acoustics in their personal workspace.

B. Conference Rooms and Private Offices

Though conference rooms and private offices have stationary partitions from the floor to the suspended acoustical ceiling, acoustical problems can still occur.

Most workplace environments should have quiet havens—places where private conversations can occur without being heard in adjacent rooms or passageways for employee matters, contract negotiations, classified discussions, etc.

Some problems that occur in private offices:

• inability to have private discussions
• can hear sounds through partitions
• too noisy in room
• can hear sounds from air return registers

Sound can travel over partition walls and through the suspended acoustical ceiling. To be an effective sound barrier between rooms, partitions need to extend to the structural deck.

Solutions:

• Extend walls from floor to structural deck above.
• Insulate partition cavity/increase partition sound transmission class (STC).
• Specify NRC of 0.75 for ceiling tiles.
• Employ ducted air return system.
• Do not locate mechanical equipment rooms next to offices and conference rooms.

STC values for various occupancies can be found in UFC 3-450-01 Noise and Vibration Control and Architectural Graphic Standards.

C. Classrooms

Classrooms are environments designated for learning, not just for school-age children, but for adult education as well. Classrooms have become multimedia communications environments, further increasing the importance of classroom acoustics.

Good acoustics for learning support easy verbal communication, which requires low noise levels and very little reverberation. In the past, classrooms may have been constructed without adequate consideration of sound acoustical principles. Sources of noise hampering students' concentration include:

• outside of the school (vehicular traffic and aircraft flyover)
• the hallways (foot traffic and conversation)
• other classrooms (amplified sound systems and inadequate partition sound transmission loss)
• mechanical equipment (compressors, boilers, and ventilation systems), and
• inside the classroom itself (reverberation).

To reduce noise from adjoining classrooms, do not have doors adjacent to each other or have doors directly across from each other. Rather, offset the door locations to extend the sound travel path from one classroom to the next. This strategy works well with conference rooms and private offices as well.

The Acoustical Society of America (ASA) recognized the value of a high-quality acoustical learning environment. The results of their efforts led to the publication of ANSI/ASA S12.60 American National Standard Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for Schools. This Standard provides acoustical performance criteria, design requirements, and design guidelines for new school classrooms and other learning spaces. The standard may be applied when practicable to the major renovation of existing classrooms.

Application

Daylighted Offices and Classrooms

When open ceilings are designed into a building project to optimize daylighting into offices and classrooms, quite often suspended acoustical ceilings are eliminated and the exposed surfaces are painted with highly reflective paint to throw daylight well into the space. The sound absorption value lost by the absence of the suspended ceiling must be replaced in other ways to prevent the space from becoming a highly reverberant field. High reverberation times are not conducive to concentration and effective learning.

For office areas with exposed ceiling structure, specify low reverberation times (0.6–0.8 seconds) to minimize echoing and unwanted sound reinforcement.

In other words, the majority of the effective sound absorbing materials in a space are in the suspended acoustical ceiling. If a space is designed without a suspended acoustical ceiling, sound absorption must be provided somewhere else: partitions, banners, drapes, etc.

Carpet on the floor does not replace the lost overhead sound absorption though it reduces footfall noise.

HVAC Noise Issues

HVAC systems should be specified to have an ambient sound level compatible with the occupancy. If HVAC system is too noisy, conversation may be difficult. If HVAC is too quiet, unwanted conversations and other distracting noises will be heard. Productivity is affected. Follow recommended background noise reduction design criteria for typical occupancies in Architectural Graphic Standards. For example, in office buildings:

• small conference rooms: NC 30–35
• small private offices, libraries: NC 30–35
• general offices: NC 35–40
• computer rooms: NC 40–50

HVAC acoustical strategies:

• Avoid through-the-wall air return louvers that draw air from one room through another in private offices, conference rooms, and other rooms where confidential discussions are expected to occur. All air returns should be ducted.
• Do not locate air supply or return registers close to each other on opposite sides of a partition wall. Doing so will cause sound to pass directly from one room to another, negating the acoustical value of the partition.
• Specify quiet HVAC equipment. Though the price may be somewhat higher, the alternative of using standard equipment may lead to costly and disruptive remediation.

Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation using operable windows is desirable in appropriate climate zones. Before committing to that strategy, be aware of the outdoor acoustical environment around the building. Unacceptable levels of continuous or intermittent noise outside can preclude the use of this sustainable design strategy.

Sound Masking

• What is it? — Sound masking introduces unobtrusive background sounds into the office environment to reduce interference from distracting office sounds and render speech from coworkers virtually unintelligible.
• Where and when to use it? — In open and closed office designs when ambient sound level is too low.
• Why use it? — To increase productivity, improve worker morale, and enhance speech privacy.

Sound masking works by producing sound electronically, similar to that of softly blowing air, which is projected through speakers installed above the tiles in the ceiling. This sound is evenly distributed throughout the area being masked and can be adjusted to the individual privacy requirements in any given area. In an open plan office without a suspended ceiling, speakers could be set on the systems furniture or even under the raised floor.

Sources for sound masking systems include Dynasound, Lencore, and LogiSon.

Sustainability and Acoustics

There may be opportunities to meet project sustainability goals in conjunction with good acoustical design if they are considered early in the project development phase. For example, a reinforced concrete wall may be recommended as a passive solar design strategy. If the building is located next to a busy highway or railway, that wall could provide the necessary sound transmission reduction to achieve an acceptable indoor acoustical environment. For projects having security requirements, that same wall could serve to mitigate blast. The key is getting the acoustical, security, and sustainability consultants involved at project conception and to apply the integrated design process throughout the project.

Acoustical products like ceiling tiles, insulation, and carpeting, among others can help meet the project's sustainability goals since many of them are recyclable or are manufactured from recycled content. Ceiling tile and carpet tile manufacturers 'take back' their products that are damaged or at end-of-life. These programs are helping to eliminate the huge amounts of carpet and ceiling tile that used to end up in landfills.

The U.S. Green Building Council's (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) for Schools Rating System is the first green building rating system to include both an acoustics prerequisite and credits for classroom design.

Fire Safety

Be sure acoustical materials meet applicable fire resistance requirements. Do not use bedding or packing foam as sound absorbers—they are not the same as tested acoustical foam. See the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Station nightclub fire investigation.

Directional sound is a relatively new technology in fire safety. It is an audible means to lead people to safety. The varying tones and intensities coming from directional sound devices offer easy-to-understand cues for finding the ways out. Advantages of directional sounders:

• can lead people of all languages to exit
• audible clues can direct people with visual impairments
• especially helpful in smoke-filled environments
• upward or downward sweeping tones alert occupants to go up or down stairways to exit building.

Related Issues

Though acoustics and noise control in buildings remain one of the least recognized design objectives, recently, certain organizations have recognized the importance of including acoustics in green building standards and post occupancy evaluations. The USGBC LEED v4.1 rating system now offers credits for improving acoustic performance in both the Building Design and Construction and Residential categories. The Center for the Built Environment (CBE) pioneered the inclusion of acoustic comfort and satisfaction in post occupancy evaluations. More recently, leading design firms and federal agencies that apply the integrated design process to their projects are including acoustical considerations in planning and design through occupancy evaluations.

Multi-Family Residential: Higher-end condos and apartments along with senior living communities have also begun considering acoustic comfort in their designs. For example, these homes are including design strategies like staggered stud walls, avoiding back-to-back electrical outlets, plumbing noise control, high efficiency windows, water hammer arrestors, and designing adjacent units for compatible occupancies e.g. bedroom to bedroom, laundry room to laundry room, and garage to garage.

A Quieter America: The Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA (INCE-USA) announced a new website: A Quieter America to provide knowledge about noise and noise control for the public. As part of its mission, INCE-USA enables a quieter world through education, awareness, advocacy, and technical advancement. The site provides information defining noise and its impact on health and quality of life in an easy-to-understand format for readers from school age to professionals in related fields. Additionally, there is information about controlling noise with detailed information on specific noise issues.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Industry

• ANSI/ASA S12.60/Part 1 Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for Schools—Part 1: Permanent Schools
• ANSI/ASA S12.60/Part 2 Acoustical Performance Criteria, Design Requirements, and Guidelines for School—Part 2: Relocatable Classroom Factors
• ASHRAE HVAC Applications Handbook, Chapter 48, Sound and Vibration Control
• ASTM E1374 Standard Guide for Open Office Acoustics and Applicable ASTM Standards
• ASTM E33.02 (1998) Open office acoustics. White Paper. ASTM Standardization News, 26 (12), 39-47.

Government

• DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors  (Acoustics, p.5.5)
• UFC 3-450-01 Noise and Vibration Control
• UFGS 09 51 00 Acoustical Ceilings
• UFGS 09 84 20 Acoustical Wall Panels
• UFGS 10 22 26.13 Accordion Folding Partitions
• UFGS 10 22 39 Folding Panel Partitions
• UFGS 10 22 43 Sliding Partitions

Additional Resources

Organizations and Associations

• Acoustics.com—A Professional Design Resource
• Acoustical Society of America (ASA)
• American Speech-Hearing-Language Association (ASHA)
• American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)
• Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA (INCE-USA)
• National Council of Acoustical Consultants (NCAC)

References

• Acoustic Quality in Office Workstations, as Assessed by Occupant Surveys Jensen, K., and E. Arens. Proceedings, Indoor Air 2005, Beijing, China, Sept. 4-9, 2005.
• Architectural Graphic Standards 12th Edition by The American Institute of Architects. Available from John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2016.
• Classroom Acoustics II: Acoustical Barriers to Learning by Acoustical Society of America. Melville, NY, 2002.
• National Research Council Canada—Acoustics Research
• NIH Design Policy and Guidelines (p. 15), 2016.
• PBS-P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, GSA. (Section 3.4, Special Design Considerations-Acoustics), 2021.
• Sound Matters: How to achieve acoustic comfort in the contemporary office by the GSA Public Buildings Service. 2011.
• Sound & Vibration 2.0: Design Guidelines for Health Care Facilities by the Acoustics Research Council. 2013.
• U.S. Courts Design Guide by the Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts and General Services Administration (GSA). Washington, DC, 2021.

Tools

• GSA Sustainable Facilities Tool (SFTool)—SFTool's immersive virtual environment addresses all your sustainability planning, designing and procurement needs.
• USGBC LEED v4.1 building rating system

Introduction

The tragic human consequences of active shooter events now play out through the media to which the public is continuously connected. While this is definitely a real phenomenon that shakes the foundations of one's sense of security; panic and paranoia are not in order. After all, the chances of any specific individual being the victim of an active shooter are extremely small; on average approximately 135 people killed or wounded annually in the US, according to FBI data. People are much more likely to die in a car accident (approximately 38,000 annually). The fatality figure from active shooters is even smaller, at approximately 49 per year. To put that in perspective, according to the National Weather Service, the same number of people are killed by lighting in the US annually. However, the horror that the active shooter instills mandates that a person act. People want to feel safe, yet don't want to surrender their liberty and freedom. Schools, malls, and offices should not be turned into high security, hardened facilities. So what can prudently be done to reduce the chances of being a victim? A plan and training improve reaction time and reduce the chances that poor choices will be made under stress. Some selective hardening can help reduce the damage and number of victims if an event does occur. Delaying an attacker by mere seconds or minutes can save lives in an active shooter attack.

Description

Protective design can reduce the risk of an active shooter incident and, if one occurs, can mitigate or reduce the number of potential victims. The extent of the design may vary greatly depending on the type of organization, the openness requirements of the facility, the actual or perceived threats, the tolerance for visible (perhaps intrusive) security measures, and funding. However, even for soft targets like schools, malls or office buildings, prudent steps can and should be considered. A facility, school, or office building should conduct a security risk assessment. Such an assessment can be performed by a qualified security consultant or company, or local law enforcement. Requiring credentials such as PSP (Certified Physical Security Professional) or CPP (Certified Protection Professional) by the American Society of Industrial Security (ASIS) or similar credential is a good way of ensuring a sound assessment is performed. The assessment should evaluate the threats, identify vulnerabilities to those threats, quantify the potential loses, evaluate the relative risks, and recommend measures to mitigate these risks. Such measures may be operational, technical, or architectural in nature. An independent party (not a vendor seeking to sell specific systems) will generally provide a more unbiased and comprehensive assessment.

When evaluating design considerations, the concept of CPTED (Crime Prevention through Environmental Design) is a good place to start. It is commonly described as a multi-disciplinary approach to deterring criminal behavior through environmental design. CPTED strategies rely upon the ability to influence offender decisions that precede criminal acts. It requires application of psychology as well as sound security design. CPTED includes common sense approaches of ensuring adequate lighting, eliminating hiding places, etc. that can improve security, reduce vulnerability, and help deter criminal activity.

As evidenced by the statistics, many active shooters are set on destruction, and their own mortality is not a concern. They never intend to get out of the assault alive. This can limit the value of deterrence. However, many active shooters, especially those who plan their actions carefully, want their plans to succeed. Even suicide bombers have been known to avoid certain targets because they fear they'll be stopped or interdicted prior to completing their mission. A robust security posture and presence can certainly help in this regard. For lightly protected facilities like schools, malls, and office buildings, this may be limited to such things as visible signage, random guard patrols, adequate lighting of exterior parking and entrance areas, closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras, substantial exterior door locks, simple access control systems (turnstiles, badges, etc.), and secure locking doors to key areas or passageways.

Ultimately, there are two options: impede the shooter or impede the bullet.

More options are available for protecting against an external threat versus an internal threat. For external threats, access control is key. Minimize the number of access points and condition building occupants to not bypass security measures for convenience. Verifying entrants is important. Where security officers are not present, building administrators, particularly in schools, should be the first interface with visitors. Unfortunately, many schools are designed with administrative offices buried inside and not out and visible to a visitor. Forcing an exterior threat through an administrative space, with restricted access to the core of the building, could deter or prevent the aggressor from reaching their targets.

While there is a vast array of intrusion detection systems available today, people's eyes and ears tend to be the most reliable especially in an open, non-hardened, publicly accessible facility. As a minimum, however, solid security locks and doors are essential. These may be coupled with sensors to detect motion or unauthorized access. If they are to be more than just a deterrent and delay device, these sensors should also tie back to a central reporting station for interpretation and action.

Alarms are essential and must go beyond the basic fire alarms used in the past. Studies conducted on the evacuation of large public facilities have clearly shown that the efficiency of large-scale evacuations are increased substantially when audible alarms giving simple verbal directions are provided compared to a general klaxon-type alarm. This is especially so in an active shooter situation where specific directions to staff or occupants may improve survivability. If, for example, an aggressor is located in the cafeteria of the building, it would be beneficial to direct people away from that area. In contrast to a fire evacuation, measures for warning during an active shooter event should include messages to employee computers, text messages, etc. Audible directions which the aggressor could hear are discouraged, unless they are communicated in code (i.e. Code Blue). However, in some environments, an audible message may be the only option to provide facility occupants with the information they need to protect themselves.

Since most active shooter events generally last only minutes, access denial can be an effective way to mitigate potential losses. Slowing or delaying an aggressor by just a minute or seconds may give law enforcement time to arrive before mass casualties are incurred.

For lightly secured facilities, a significant return on investment can generally be obtained by implementing reinforced doors lockable from the interior of office spaces or gathering areas. Secondary door blocking devices such as a simple rubber or wood triangular stop can provide additional stopping resistance. Those doors should have small slit windows, too small for an aggressor to crawl through. No windows are preferred but are not practical for other reasons. It is important however that if windows are present that they contain laminated glass that provides some resistance to ballistics attack and forced entry. If a gunman can shoot through the window it is important that he cannot merely reach in and unlock the door. This is where simple door stops or floor angles provide needed secondary protection. Analysis of footage from actual active shooter events have shown that the shooter will likely not spend significant time trying to get through a particular door if it is locked or blocked. Rather they move to their next target. They know law enforcement is on its way and that time is limited.

The technology and materials to provide blast, hurricane, forced entry, and ballistic-resistant door and window systems exist. These systems have been designed, tested, and implemented in highly secure facilities like embassies, courthouses, government buildings, military facilities, sensitive data centers, and facilities housing, historic or otherwise valuable assets, for many years. Providing this level of protection in more lightly secured facilities like schools, malls and typical office buildings is often not practical, cost-effective, or even desired by the occupants given the level of threats and risks perceived. However, some level of protective glazing, especially for windows and doors near lobbies and other entrances offer a potential area where simple improvements can provide significant benefit. In the Sandy Hook School shooting for example, it was reported that the shooter failed to gain entry through locked doors and shot out adjacent windows. This is shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Test data collected in projects supporting the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) and the U.S. General Services Administration have clearly demonstrated that some applications of properly installed security window films and thin laminated glass systems can provide resistance to forced entry even though they were not specifically designed for that purpose.1 These tests were conducted in response to the U.S. Government's concern that upgraded window systems in their facilities designed to resist hurricane wind and explosive blast forces might hinder first responders in gaining access to or emergency egress from protected spaces. This body of data was made freely available to firefighters resulting in over 5,000 trained first responders (Figure 3). The test program produced a window classification system to train firefighters how to enter and egress through such window systems. The classification system is shown in Table 1. The data should now be extended, analyzed, and made available as a resource for facility owners and security designers for the purposes of evaluating the benefits of lightly protected glazing systems.

Figure 3. Firefighters using various objects, tools and techniques to breach protective glazing systems

Table 1. Window classification system developed for the U.S. General Services Administration and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. The system classifies window systems based on the type of tools required to breach the glazed system in a given period of time.

For both external and internal threats, building design can be beneficial. Film or laminate glazing applied to both exterior and interior windows may not stop a bullet, but it could significantly slow an aggressor. This is particularly important given the current architectural preference for large amounts of glazing to provide natural light into spaces. Obscuration is another approach. Adding opaque materials, where feasible, reduces an aggressor's line of sight and provides more hiding locations for building occupants. Finally, structural materials can play a significant role. Concrete masonry units (CMU) and masonry bricks are commonly used in construction and based on initial testing provide suitable ballistic resistance. CMU is highly effect if the hollow cores are infilled with concrete to create a solid wall. These materials can also be used for interior walls to provide more barriers from a ballistic threat. A combination of these materials and strategies, designed specifically for the space, can provide both a deterrent and a mitigation approach.

Just as potential victims must process through an OODA Loop where they Observe, Orient, Decide, and Act, so must the active shooter. When an aggressor hits a window system for example, expecting it to easily break and it doesn't, this disrupts their processing of events. They have to make decisions. Do they continue to attack to break through? Do they change course and approach by a different route? If they start trying to break through such a window system that may take a minute or two to get through, do they continue or do they give up? Regardless of the outcome, such systems can provide disruption and delay. Perhaps enough time for escape and for law enforcement to arrive. Remember, seconds or minutes can make a tremendous difference in an active shooter event.

Application

Designing for an active shooter event can be performed in virtually any environment and to varying degrees. Schools are the current focus of resources for mitigation measures due to the perceived high frequency of events and the natural reaction to protect our children from harm. Government and commercial entities are also beginning to focus on active shooter design, particularly at points of public interface such as lobbies.

Emerging Issues

The lack of guidance documents focusing specifically on active shooter designs will likely lead to varying levels of implementation and reliance on methods and technologies which may not be as effective or cost efficient.

Additional Resources

Publications

• Active Shooter How to Respond  by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, October 2008.
• Active Shooter Pocket Card  by the US Department of Homeland Security.
• Active Shooter Recommendations and Analysis for Risk Mitigation by Raymond W. Kelly, NYPD.
• "Active Shooter: What to expect, what to do, is there a role for protective design?" by Joseph L. Smith, PSP, Applied Research Associates, Inc., April 9, 2014. The material on this page is excerpted from the paper.
• Firefighter Forcible Entry Tutorial by Applied Research Associates, Inc., Prepared for the U.S. General Services Administration with support from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security and Louisiana State University, 2005.
• RUN, HIDE, FIGHT! This training video is made available by the City of Houston, TX with support from the U.S. Department of Homeland Security.

Training Courses

• WBDG03 Planning for Secure Buildings
• WBDG10 Seismic Design Basics
• WBDG11 Site Security Design Process and Strategies

Introduction

The purpose of this section is to provide access to current and continuously updated resources for further information related to commissioning as a profession, a business, and a process.

Organizations with Significant Cx Focus

• ACG AABC Commissioning Group
• APPA Leadership in Educational Facilities (formerly Association of Physical Plant Administrators)
• ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers
• ASTM American Society for Testing Materials
• BCxA Building Commissioning Association
• CIBSE Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers
• EERE U.S. Department of Energy Better Buildings Initiative
• Energy Systems Laboratory Texas A&M University Continuous Commissioning®
• IES Illuminating Engineering Society
• NEBB National Environmental Balancing Bureau
• NFPA National Fire Protection Association
• SMACNA Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
• USGBC U.S. Green Building Council

Relevant Codes, Standards, and Guidelines

American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

• Green Guide: The Design, Construction, and Operation of Sustainable Buildings
• Guideline 0–2019, The Commissioning Process
• Guideline 0.2–2015, Commissioning Process for Existing Systems and Assemblies
• Guideline 1.1–2007, HVAC&R Technical Requirements for The Commissioning Process
• Guideline 1.2–2019, Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process for Existing HVAC&R Systems and Assemblies
• Guideline 1.3–2018, Building Operations and Maintenance Training for HVAC&R Commissioning Process
• Guideline 1.4–2019, Preparing Systems Manuals for Facilities
• Guideline 1.5–2017, The Commissioning Process for Smoke Control Systems
• Guideline 4–2019, Preparation of Operations and Maintenance Documentation for HVAC&R Systems
• Standard 189.1–2020, Standard for the Design of High-Performance Green Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings
• Standard 202–2018, Commissioning Process for Buildings and Systems
• Standard 90.1–2019, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low-Rise Residential Buildings

ASTM International

• E1186–17 Standard Practices for Air Leakage Site Detection in Building Envelopes and Air Barrier Systems
• E2813 Standard Practice for Building Enclosure Commissioning
• E2947 Standard Guide for Building Enclosure Commissioning

Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP)

• Commissioning for Federal Buildings 

International Code Council (ICC) Codes

• ICC G4 Guideline for Commissioning, 2018
• International Building Code, 2021
• International Energy Conservation Code, 2021
• International Existing Building Code, 2021
• International Fire Code, 2021
• International Green Construction Code, 2021
• International Mechanical Code, 2021
• International Plumbing Code, 2021
• Performance Code for Buildings and Facilities, 2021 (book)
• State-by-State Codes, 2021

ICC/MBI Standards for Modular Construction

• ICC/MBI 1200–2021 Standard for Off-Site Construction: Planning, Design, Fabrication and Assembly
• ICC/MBI 1205–2021 Standard for Off-Site Construction: Inspection and Regulatory Compliance
• ICC/MBI 1210 — (Expected 2022) MEP system elements, energy efficiency and water conservation in off-site construction projects

Leading State Codes

• Policies and Incentives NC Clean Energy Technology Center, by State
• Nonresidential Building Commissioning Guide, California Energy Code 2022

Commissioning Process/Procedural Guides

• ACG Commissioning Guideline  by the AABC Commissioning Group. ISBN 0-910289-04-2, 2005.
• Building Commissioning Handbook, 3rd Edition by Stum, Bjornskov. APPA & Building Commissioning Association, ISBN 1-890956-96-1, 2017.
• Commissioning for Federal Buildings by the U.S. Department of Energy. 2014.
• Commissioning Guide  by the U.S. General Services Administration. 2020.
• Commissioning Stakeholders' Guide by J. Kettler. ASHRAE & Building Commissioning Association, ISBN 9781947192058, 2018.
• NRCan by the Natural Resources Canada
• Technical Retro-commissioning of Existing Buildings by the National Environmental Balance Bureau
• Whole Building Systems Technical Commissioning by the National Environmental Balance Bureau
• Total Building Commissioning Procedures  by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 2017.

General Resource Documents

• "Annex 40" Commissioning of Building HVAC Systems for Improving Energy Performance 
• "Annex 47" Cost Effective Commissioning of Existing and Low Energy Buildings 
• "Annex 62" Ventilative Cooling 

Building Enclosure Commissioning

• ASTM International (ASTM)
• Building Envelope Design Guide by the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS). updated 2016.
• California Application Guide: Nonresidential Envelope and Solar Ready

Professional Development/Training Resources

• AEE—Association of Energy Engineers Certified Building Commissioning Professional (CBCP®) Programs
• ASHRAE Learning Institute—Ongoing commissioning workshops
• BCxA Annual Conference—International conference and workshops on commissioning practices, technologies and applications
• BCxA University—Building Commissioning Association training programs, workshops and webinars
• Cx Energy—AABC Commissioning Group/ACG Annual conference workshops and webinars
• Commissioning for Existing Federal Buildings—FEMP course on the WBDG
• IIBEC—International Institute of Building Enclosure Consultants
• Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory—Monitoring-Based Commissioning (MBCx) Energy Management Information Systems (EMIS) Crash Course and Webinar
• University of Wisconsin-Madison—Department of Engineering Professional Development

Commissioning Provider Certification and Credentials

ANSI-accredited and DOE/Better Buildings® recognized

• AABC-ACG Certified Commissioning Authority (CxA)
• AEE Certified Building Commissioning Professional (CBCP)
• ASHRAE Building Commissioning Professional (BCxP)
• Building Commissioning Certification Board Associate Commissioning Professional (ACP) Certified Commissioning Professional (CCP) Certified Commissioning Firm (CCF)

Commissioning Tools, Samples, and Templates (Free)

Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory

Their mission is to discover, develop, deliver, and sustain technologies and processes that provide high-quality facilities to the Army, DoD, and the Nation. These resources are intended to assist facilities management staff with effective in-house and contracted recommissioning or retro-commissioning (RCx) tasks to help optimize existing buildings systems.

• Army RCx Deliverables Examples 
• Army RCx SOW and Field Templates
• Army RCx Technical Guide—A Phased Approach for In-House or Contracting Existing Building Commissioning 

Building Commissioning Association

• Commissioning Application Samples and Templates
• Existing Building Commissioning Best Practices
• New Construction Building Commissioning Best Practices
• Ongoing Building Commissioning Best Practices

Institute for Market Transformation

• Building Performance Standards: A Powerful New Tool in the Fight Against Climate Change. This two-page fact sheet lays out the basics of building performance standards, new mandatory policies that require building owners to meet performance targets by actively improving the energy performance of their buildings over time.

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

• Best Practice Guidelines and Resources
• "Building Commissioning: A Golden Opportunity for Reducing Energy Costs and Greenhouse-gas Emissions"  by Mills. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 2009.
• "Building Commissioning Costs and Savings Across Three Decades and 1,500 North American Buildings" by Crowe, Mills, Poeling, Curtin, Bjornskov, Fischer, Granderson. 2020.
• Building Performance Publications and Presentations
• MBCx Plan Template, Monitoring Action Plan

U.S. DOE—Better Buildings

• Better Buildings EMIS resources
• The Energy Information Handbook—Track Performance Indicators

Building Rating Systems

• BREEAM and BREEAM USA, New Construction and Existing Building International Rating and Certification System
• Green Globes Building Certification, Green Building Initiative
• Fitwel Project and Portfolio Certification
• Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®), U.S. Green Building Council
• Living Building Challenge (LBC), The International Living Future Institute
• WELL Building Standard, International Well Building Institute
• Zero Energy Certification, The International Living Future Institute